<text>Africanus, Sextus Julius (160?-232?), early Christian historian and traveler, born in Libya. He is known for estimating the date of the creation in the Chronographie, a history of the world from the creation to AD 221. He set the creation 5499 years before the birth of Christ and dated Christ’s birth three years earlier than the usual reckoning. His estimates were adopted by most of the Eastern churches. Only fragments of the Chronographie are extant.</text>
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card_2337.xml
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<text>Alvarado, Pedro de (1486-1541), Spanish explorer, born in Badajoz. In 1518 he accompanied the Spanish explorer Juan de Grijalva (1489?-1527) on his voyage along the coast of Mexico. In 1519 he was second in command to the Spanish adventurer Hernan Cortes on their voyage from Havana and took an active part in the conquest of Mexico. He conquered and settled Guatemala in 1523-24 and in 1534 headed an expedition to claim the territory of Quito, maintaining it had not been included in the grant made to the Spanish conqueror of Peru, Francisco Pizarro. Met by Pizarro’s troops, he agreed to turn back upon the payment of a large indemnity. Alvarado was killed during an Indian rebellion in Mexico.</text>
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card_4241.xml
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<text>Amundsen, Roald (1872-1928), Norwegian polar explorer, born in Borge, and educated at the University of Christiania (now the University of Oslo). He entered the Norwegian navy in 1894 and spent the following nine years studying science. From 1903 to 1906 he led his first important expedition in a small sloop. During this voyage he sailed successfully through the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and determined the position of the north magnetic pole. His next expedition (1910-12) sailed in a larger ship, the Fram, and gained fame as one of the most successful undertakings in the history of Antarctic exploration. With his companions, he lived in Antarctica for more than a year, conducting explorations and scientific investigations. On Dec. 14, 1911, he reached the South Pole, becoming the first person known to have accomplished this feat. He had favorable weather conditions during the voyage, but his success was due primarily to his knowledge of polar conditions, his attention to minute details, and his ability to endure great physical stress.Amundsen’s plans for an expedition into the north polar regions were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I; in 1918, however, he sailed from Norway in an attempt to drift eastward across the North Pole with the ice currents of the Arctic Ocean. The currents proved too variable to permit a crossing of the pole, and he was forced to follow a more southerly route through the Northeast Passage along the northern coast of Europe and Asia. The voyage ended in 1920, when he arrived in Nome, Alaska. In 1922 another attempt to reach the pole by both ship and airplane failed, and in 1924 Amundsen came to the U.S. to raise funds for further expeditions. In May 1926 he succeeded in crossing the North Pole during a flight of more than 70 hours from Spitsbergen (Svalbard), Norway, to Teller, Alaska; he was accompanied by the American explorer Lincoln Ellsworth and the Italian explorer and engineer Umberto Nobile (1885-1978). This flight was made in the dirigible Norge, designed and built by Nobile with the support of the Italian government. Nobile and Amundsen subsequently quarreled, each claiming that the credit for the flight belonged to his respective country. In 1928, however, when Nobile’s airship Italia was wrecked during a polar flight, Amundsen, who had retired, volunteered to search for him. Nobile was eventually rescued, but Amundsen was last heard from June 28, 1928, a few hours after he and five others had left Troms, Norway, by airplane. The remains of his airplane were found near Troms on August 31.For most of his life Amundsen was a well-known lecturer and magazine writer. His books include North West Passage (1908), The South Pole (1912), The North East Passage (1918-20), Our Polar Flight (with Lincoln Ellsworth, 1925), First Crossing of the Polar Sea (with Lincoln Ellsworth, 1927), and My Life as an Explorer (1927).</text>
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card_4574.xml
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<text>Andrews, Roy Chapman (1884-1960), American naturalist and explorer, born in Beloit, Wis. In 1906 he joined the staff of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, becoming its director in 1935. He led paleontological expeditions to Tibet, China, Burma, Outer Mongolia, and the Gobi Desert. Among Chapman’s discoveries were dinosaur eggs and remains of the baluchitherium, the largest land mammal. His writings include Quest of the Snow Leopard (1955).</text>
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card_4734.xml
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<text>Baffin, William (1584-1622), English navigator, whose name was given to Baffin Island and Baffin Bay, born in London. In 1612 he served as chief pilot of the sailing ship Patience on a voyage to Greenland, seeking a northwestern passage to the Pacific Ocean. Three years later he was chief pilot of the Discovery on a similar expedition. He explored Hudson Strait during that voyage, making navigational observations that later proved to have been remarkably accurate. Piloting the Discovery on another expedition in 1616, he partly explored the bay subsequently named in his honor. He sailed as far north as lat 77°45’ N on that occasion, a record unsurpassed for 236 years. From 1617 to 1620 he was employed by the East India Co. of England, for which he made surveys on the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.</text>
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card_5110.xml
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<text>Baker, Sir Samuel White (1821-93), British traveler and explorer, born in London, and educated in England and Germany. In 1859-60 he superintended the construction of a railway between the Danube River and the Black Sea. In 1861 he set out from Cairo to search for the source of the Nile River. In 1862 he proceeded up the Nile to Gondokoro (in the Sudan), where he met the British explorers John Hanning Speke and James Augustus Grant (1827-92). Speke and Grant had left Bagamoyo (now in Tanzania) in 1860, and the former had found Lake Victoria to be the true source of the Nile. Informed by Speke of another lake, said to be crossed by the Nile on its course to Gondokoro, Baker continued his journey, despite hostile slave traders and a mutiny of his troops; on March 14, 1864, he reached the lake and named it Lake Albert.From 1869 to 1873 Baker commanded an expedition to suppress slavery and open trade in the equatorial lake region. He explored in Cyprus, Syria, India, Japan, and the U.S. He wrote Eight Years Wandering in Ceylon (1855), The Albert Nyanza (1866), The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia (1867), and Wild Beasts and Their Ways (1890).</text>
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card_5352.xml
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<text>Bandelier, Adolph Francis Alphonse (1840- 1914), Swiss-American explorer, anthropologist, and archaeologist, born in Bern. At the age of eight he was taken to the U.S., but in 1855 he returned to Switzerland, where he studied geology at the University of Bern. In the late 1850s he went back to the U.S. and began to study Mexican archaeology, on which he published several monographs. His later research among the Indians of the Southwest was published as Final Report of Investigations Among the Indians of the Southwestern Portion of the United States (2 pts., 1890, 1892). During an expedition (1892-1903) to Peru and Bolivia he unearthed valuable information about the pre-Columbian civilization of those areas. In 1903 he joined the staff of the American Museum of Natural History, and he lectured on Spanish American literature at Columbia University. In 1911 he went to Spain, where he worked until his death. The Bandelier National Monument, which includes the site of his investigations in north-central New Mexico, was named in his honor.</text>
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card_5405.xml
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<text>Barents, Willem (1550?-97), Dutch navigator. Barents made three voyages from the Netherlands in search of a northeast passage to Asia. The first vessel sailed June 5, 1594, reached the northeastern extremity of Novaya Zemlya and returned. A second expedition of seven vessels was sent out the following year, too late in the season to be successful. On the third expedition, which started in May 1596, Barents discovered and named Spitsbergen (now Svalbard). There his two vessels separated to conduct independent explorations. Barents and his crew spent a miserable winter frozen in north of Novaya Zemlya. On June 13, 1597, they left in two open boats; Barents died shortly afterward. The survivors reached the shores of Lapland and were rescued by the second ship of the expedition. The Barents Sea, which he crossed in 1594, 1596, and 1597, and Barents Island in the Svalbard archipelago are named for him.</text>
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card_5811.xml
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<text>Barth, Heinrich, (1821-65), German explorer of Africa. After an education at the University of Berlin, Barth traveled (1845-47) in modern Libya and Tunisia. In 1850 he joined a British-sponsored expedition, led by James Richardson (1806-51), into the interior of West Africa. From Tripoli the group crossed the Sahara and reached Lake Chad, where Richardson then died. Taking command, Barth moved westward, exploring the middle section of the Niger River and discovering the upper reaches of the Beue River, a tributary of the Niger. He then pushed on (1852-53) to Timbuktu. Finally, he returned to Tripoli and then to London in 1855. Barth’s five-volume Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa (1857-58) contains information on, and maps of, many little-known regions.</text>
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card_6052.xml
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<text>Bartlett, Robert Abram (1875-1946), Canadian-American explorer, born in Brigus, Conception Bay, Nfld., and educated at the Methodist College at Saint John’s and at the Halifax Academy. He accompanied the American explorer Robert E. Peary on an Arctic expedition in 1897 and 1898, and from 1905 to 1909 he commanded the Roosevelt on the voyages leading to Peary’s arrival at the North Pole. On the final dash he accompanied Peary on land as far north as the 88th parallel. Bartlett became an American citizen in 1911. He was captain of the Karluk on the Canadian Arctic expedition of 1913 and 1914. After his ship was crushed by ice near Wrangel Island, Bartlett crossed the ice to Siberia with one Inuit (Eskimo) and led back a party that rescued 13 survivors. He headed other expeditions to the Arctic in 1917 and each year from 1925 to 1935.</text>
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card_6310.xml
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<text>Beebe, Charles William (1877-1962), American explorer and naturalist, born in Brooklyn, N.Y., and educated at Columbia University. Appointed curator of ornithology of the New York Zoological Society in 1899, he originated the collection of living birds in the New York Zoological Park, the Bronx, New York City, making it one of the finest such collections in the world. In 1916 he became director of tropical research for the society. He headed scientific expeditions to Nova Scotia, Mexico, Venezuela, British Guiana (now Guyana), Borneo, China, Japan, the Himalaya, and other regions. Notable was his exploration in parts of Asia in search of data later published in his Monograph of the Pheasants (1918) and Pheasants—Their Lives and Homes (1926).In 1923 Beebe led an expedition to the Galapagos Islands to study marine and land life, on the way making oceanographic studies in the Sargasso Sea. He made a record descent of 923 m (3028 ft) into the ocean off the Bermuda Islands in 1934 in a bathysphere (q.v.). Beebe wrote about 300 articles and books. Among the books are Jungle Days (1925), Beneath Tropic Seas (1928), Half Mile Down (1943), Book of Naturalists (1944), and Unseen Life in New York (1953).</text>
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card_6566.xml
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<text>Belzoni, Giovanni Battista (1778-1823), Italian explorer and archaeologist, born in Padua. After studying hydraulic engineering in Rome, he went to England in 1803. There and elsewhere, exploiting his powerful physique, he worked as a circus performer until 1815. He then went to Egypt, where he was employed to collect Egyptian antiquities for the British Museum. Within the next two years he transferred from Thebes the colossal bust of Ramses II, called The Young Memnon (British Museum, London), explored the temple at Idfu, cleared the entrance to the huge temple at Abu Simbel, and excavated at al-Karnak. In 1817 he traveled to the Valley of the Kings, where he discovered the tomb of the Egyptian king Seti I, containing Seti’s magnificent alabaster sarcophagus (Soane Museum, London). The next year Belzoni became the first person in modern time to enter the pyramid of Khafre at Giza. He was one of the first Europeans to visit the oasis of Siwah, and he also identified the ruins of Berenice on the Red Sea. In 1819 he returned to England. The following year he published Narrative of the Operations and Recent Discoveries Within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs, and Excavations, in Egypt and Nubia.</text>
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card_6838.xml
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<text>Bering, Vitus Jonassen (1680-1741), Danish navigator, born in Horsens, Denmark. He entered the newly formed navy of the Russian czar Peter the Great and in 1724 was appointed to conduct an expedition to explore the water routes between Siberia and North America. Having taken supplies across the continent, Bering sailed from Kamchatka Peninsula in 1728. He passed north through the Bering Strait into the Arctic Ocean, but because of bad weather he did not sight the North American continent; he did prove, however, that the Asian and North American continents are not joined. Returning to Saint Petersburg in 1730, he sought another expedition to explore northeastern Siberia.In 1733 Bering assumed command of a much larger and more ambitious undertaking, which eventually was responsible for the mapping of large areas of the northern Siberian coast. In June 1741 Bering set sail from Petropavlovsk (which he had founded the previous year) for the North American continent. He sailed into the Gulf of Alaska and sighted the continent north of what is now Cape Saint Elias, Alaska, on July 29, and shortly afterward landed on Kayak Island. During the return voyage Bering and most of his crew were ill with scurvy, and his ship, encountering storms and fog, was wrecked on an uninhabited island, subsequently named Bering Island in his honor. Bering died there of exposure one month later, but a few survivors built a vessel in which they returned to Kamchatka in 1742.</text>
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card_7031.xml
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<text>Bienville, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, sieur de </text>
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<text>Bienville, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, sieur de (1680-1768), French explorer and colonial administrator, born in Longueuil, Canada, a member of a notable family of French explorers. In 1699, with his brothers Pierre Le Moyne, sieur d’Iberville, and François Le Moyne, sieur de Sauvole (1670-1700), he founded a settlement called Biloxi in the French province of Louisiana, across the bay from the present-day city of Biloxi, Miss. When Sauvole died, Bienville took over as governor of Louisiana, although he was not officially appointed to the post, and in 1710 founded the present-day city of Mobile, Ala.In 1712 the French soldier Antoine de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac was appointed governor of Louisiana; Bienville served as his second in command until 1717, when Cadillac returned to France and Bienville replaced him officially. In 1718, realizing its strategic importance, he laid out the city of New Orleans, which became the capital in 1722. His enemies accused him of incompetence, however, and in 1726 he was recalled to France and deprived of his office. Reinstated in 1732, he again served as governor of Louisiana from 1733 to 1743, when he retired and returned to France.</text>
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card_7423.xml
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<text>Block, Adriaen(fl. 1610-24), Dutch navigator. He commanded the Tijger (Tiger) on a voyage, late in 1613, to what is now New York Harbor. After a fire destroyed his vessel while at anchor in the harbor, Block encamped, with his crew, on Manhattan Island. There they built a craft, named the Onrust (Restless), in which Block explored Long Island Sound. His discoveries on this voyage, which extended north beyond Cape Cod, included the Connecticut River and the island (off the coast of present-day Rhode Island) that bears his nam. He later incorporated geographical data obtained on the voyage in a map, called the Figurative Map of 1614, which showed for the first time that Manhattan Island is separated from Long Island.</text>
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card_7516.xml
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<text>Bougainville, Louis Antoine de (1729-1811), French military officer and navigator, known for his important contributions to science and geography during the last half of the 18th century.Bougainville was born and educated in Paris. He studied law but abandoned it to join the French army in 1754. At the age of 25 he wrote a paper on integral calculus and was subsequently made a member of the Royal Society of London. During the French and Indian War, he served as aide-de-camp to Marquis Louis Joseph Montcalm de Saint-Veran in Canada, taking part in the defense of Ticonderoga and Quebec. He later fought in Germany during the Seven Years’ War. In 1764 he established a French colony in the Falkland Islands, but it was soon abandoned because of objections by Spain, which claimed the islands. He became the first Frenchman to sail around the world (1766-69), visiting Samoa, the Solomon Islands, and New Hebrides. He was accompanied by naturalists and astronomers and made many scientific and geographic discoveries. He published his experiences during the expedition as Account of a Voyage Around the World (2 vol., 1771-72; trans. 1772).During the American Revolution Bougainville served with the French force in America led by the French naval officer Comte François Joseph Paul de Grasse. In 1789 Bougainville was promoted to rear admiral and in 1790 to field marshal. Soon afterward he retired to devote himself to science.Bougainville was chosen a member of the Institute de France in 1796, the year it was created. Napoleon made Bougainville a senator and count of the empire and a member of the Legion of Honor. The largest of the Solomon Islands, a strait in the Solomon Islands, and a channel in Vanuatu are all named for Bougainville, as is the tropical American flowering vine Bougainvillea.</text>
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card_7719.xml
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<text>Bowditch, Nathaniel (1773-1838), American navigator and mathematician, born in Salem, Mass. He went to sea as a clerk in 1795 and, largely through his mastery of the art of navigation, became captain of his own ship. His classic work The New American Practical Navigator (1802) is still used as a standard sailing text under the title The American Practical Navigator.After receiving an honorary A.M. degree from Harvard University, Bowditch became an actuary for an insurance company. Continuing his mathematical studies, he completed a translation of Traite de mecanique celeste (1779-1825; Celestial Mechanics, 1829-38) by the French astronomer Marquis Simon de Laplace.</text>
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card_8114.xml
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<text>Bridger, James (1804-81), American trader, explorer, and scout, born in Richmond, Va. He made numerous trapping and hunting expeditions in the northern Rocky Mountains region. In 1825, while traveling through Utah, Bridger explored Great Salt Lake, until then known only to the Indians. He served as a guide on several western exploratory expeditions, including one (1832-35) that was conducted by the American army officer Benjamin de Bonneville. In 1843 Bridger founded Fort Bridger, Wyo., and in 1856 he located what became known as Bridger’s Pass, in central Wyoming. In 1859 and 1860 he visited the region that is now Yellowstone National Park. Until his descriptions of the geysers and other features of the region were verified, they were known as “Jim Bridger’s lies.”</text>
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card_8227.xml
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<text>Bruce, James (1730-94), Scottish explorer, born in Stirling Co., Scotland, and educated at the University of Edinburgh. After a short business career he was appointed (1763) consul in Algiers, where he studied Oriental languages and medicine. In 1765 Bruce resigned his position and explored Roman ruins in North Africa. He continued his archaeological investigations in Rhodes, Cyprus, and Syria, examining various ruins, notably those of Baalbek (now in Lebanon) and Palmyra in Syria.In his next important undertaking Bruce sought to discover the source of the Nile. In November 1770, after spending two years in Abyssinia (now Ethiopia), he reached the source of the Blue Nile, which he mistakenly considered to be of greater historical importance than the White Nile. Bruce claimed that he was the first to discover the source of the Blue Nile; it is known, however, that the Spanish Jesuit missionary Father Pedro Paez (1564-1622) discovered it about 1615. Overcoming many difficulties and hardships, Bruce proceeded overland in 1771, following the course of the Blue Nile to its confluence with the White Nile, a journey that he was the first to accomplish. He wrote Travels to Discover the Sources of the Nile, in the Years 1768-73 (5 vol., 1790).</text>
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card_8667.xml
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<text>Byrd, Richard Evelyn (1888-1957), American explorer, author, aviator, and naval officer, known for leading several air and land expeditions to the Antarctic, and for discoveries there.Byrd was born in Winchester, Va. He was graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1912. Designated a naval aviator in 1918, he was promoted to lieutenant commander and in 1925 he commanded the naval air unit of the expedition to Greenland led by the American explorer Donald Baxter MacMillan.With the American aviator Floyd Bennett as copilot, he made the first flight over the North Pole in 1926. For this achievement Byrd received the Medal of Honor. In 1927 he flew the first transatlantic airmail from New York to France with the Norwegian-American Bernt Balchen (1899-1973) and the Americans Bertrand B. Acosta (1895-1954) and George O. Noville (b. 1890).During his first expedition (1928-30) to Antarctica, Byrd established a base, Little America, on the Bay of Whales. In the course of mapping 388,300 sq km (150,000 sq mi) of Antarctica, members of the expedition discovered the Edsel Ford Range and Marie Byrd Land. In 1929 Byrd made the first flight over the South Pole, together with Balchen and the American pilots Harold I. June (1895-1962) and Ashley C. McKinley (1897-1940). Byrd was promoted in 1930 to the rank of rear admiral, retired.During his second expedition (1933-35) to the Antarctic, for five months Byrd conducted meteorological and auroral researches alone in a shack 196 km (121.7 mi) south of Little America. The expedition party surveyed 1,165,000 sq km (450,000 sq mi) of territory and undertook research in many branches of science.During his third expedition (1939-40), four exploratory flights were made, resulting in many discoveries.The fourth Byrd Antarctic expedition (1946-47) was mainly explorational: Approximately 323,500 sq km (845,000 sq mi) of territory, about one-third of it newly discovered, was mapped. Byrd made his second flight over the South Pole before returning to the U.S.In 1955 Byrd was appointed head of “Operation Deep-Freeze,” an Antarctic expedition organized by the U.S. in connection with the International Geophysical Year (q.v.) (1957-58). Early in 1956 Byrd made his third flight over the South Pole. He left the expedition shortly thereafter. Byrd wrote Skyward (1928), Little America (1930), Discovery (1935), Exploring with Byrd (1938), and Alone (1938).</text>
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card_8736.xml
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<text>Cabot, John (c. 1450-99), English navigator and explorer, who attempted to find a direct route to Asia. Although Cabot was probably born in Genoa, as a youth he moved to Venice, where his seafaring career probably began. He became a naturalized Venetian in 1476, but about eight years later settled in Bristol, England. Cabot had developed a theory that Asia might be reached by sailing westward. This theory appealed to several wealthy merchants of Bristol, who agreed to give him fin ancial support. In 1493, when reports reached England that Christopher Columbus had made the westward passage to Asia, Cabot and his supporters began to make plans for a more direct crossing to the Orient. The proposed expedition was authorized on March 5, 1496, by King Henry VII of England.With a crew of 18 men, Cabot sailed from Bristol on May 2, 1497, on the Matthew. He steered a generally northwestward course, and on June 24, after a rough voyage, he landed, perhaps on present-day Cape Breton Island; he subsequently sailed along the Labrador, Newfoundland, and New England coasts. Believing that he had reached northeastern Asia, he formally claimed the region for Henry VII. Cabot returned to England in August and was granted a pension. Assured of royal support, he immediately planned a second exploratory voyage that he hoped would bring him to Cipangu (Japan). The expedition, consisting of four or five ships and 300 men, left Bristol in May 1498. The fate of this expedition is uncertain. It is believed that in June, Cabot reached the eastern coast of Greenland and sailed northward along the coast until his crews mutinied because of the severe cold and forced him to turn southward. He may have cruised along the coast of North America to Chesapeake Bay at lat 38° N. He was forced to return to England because of a lack of supplies, and he died soon afterward.</text>
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card_9009.xml
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<text>Cabot, Sebastian (1476?-1557), Italian navigator and cartographer, best known for his expeditions for Spain and England to South and North America during the 16th century.Cabot was probably born in Venice. Although Sebastian Cabot claimed to have accompanied his father, John Cabot, to North America, it is unlikely he made a voyage to America until about 1508. In that year it is believed he reached the coast of present-day Labrador and cruised northward as far as Hudson Bay. Subsequently engaged as a cartographer by Henry VIII, king of England, he prepared maps of southwestern France for an invasion by Henry and his ally Ferdin and V, king of Spain. In 1512, while abroad with the invasion force, Cabot entered the service of Spain. After Ferdin and died, Cabot was retained by Charles I, king of Spain (later Charles V, Holy Roman emperor). About 1518 Charles promoted Cabot to the rank of pilot major.In 1525 Cabot received command of an exploring expedition to the Pacific Ocean, and in 1526 he reached the coast of what is now Brazil, near the estuary of the river he named the RÌo de la Plata (Silver River). Believing reports that the La Plata region contained vast amounts of gold and silver, he abandoned his mission and began exploring the area, conducting a fruitless search for wealth. When he returned to Spain in 1530, he was arrested, found guilty of mismanagement, and banished to Africa for four years. Charles pardoned him in 1533, however, and restored him to his post of pilot major. In 1544, his last year in the service of Spain, Cabot completed an engraved map of the world. He later settled in England, and through the influence of friends and admirers in English court circles, about 1549, he received a pension from King Edward VI of England, who also named him grand pilot ofEngland. In 1551 Cabot founded and becamegovernor of the Muscovy Co. of Merchant Adventurers, an English trading organization. On his initiative the company fin anced expeditions to search for the Northwest Passage, a sea route from Europe to Asia. Richard Chancellor (d. 1556), a navigator employed by Cabot, reached the Russian port of Arkhangelsk by way of the White Sea, laying the foundation for commercial relations between England and Russia.</text>
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card_9356.xml
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<text>Cameron, Verney Lovett (1844-94), British explorer, born near Weymouth and Melcombe Regis, England. Cameron entered the British navy in 1857, and in 1873 he was sent to Africa by the Royal Geographical Society on a second expedition to relieve the British missionary and explorer David Living-stone. Soon after the expedition landed at Zanzibar and began its journey inland, Cameron and his party met servants bearing Living-stone’s body. Cameron continued on, becoming the first European to cross tropical Africa from east to west when he reached the Atlantic Ocean in November 1875. On this expedition he found some of Living-stone’s papers, which he sent back to England, and also explored the southern half of Lake Tanganyika. When he returned home Cameron was made a commander in the British navy and a companion of the Order of the Bath. In 1878-79 he traveled in Turkey, and in 1882, with the British explorer Sir Richard Burton, he visited the African Gold Coast in search of gold. Cameron retired from the navy in 1883 and spent the rest of his life directing commercial projects in Africa. His writ ings include Across Africa (2 vol., 1877).</text>
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card_9615.xml
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<text>Cartier, Jacques (1491-1557), French explorer and mariner, discoverer of the Saint Lawrence River, born in Saint-Malo. Selected by King Francis I of France to lead an expedition to discover the Northwest Passage to Chin a, he departed from St.-Malo with two ships in April 1534. He sighted Newfoundland after 20 days, and sailing through Belle Isle Strait, between Newfoundland and Labrador, he proceeded southward along the western coast of Newfoundland and rounded the entire Gulf of Saint Lawrence. On this voyage he saw Prince Edward Island and the New Brunswick mainland, sailed into Chaleur Bay, which he named, landed on the Gaspe Peninsula, and crossed the St. Lawrence River estuary. Much of the French claim to Canada is based on Cartier’s explorations.Again sailing on orders from King Francis in 1535, Cartier crossed Belle Isle for the second time and then sailed up the St. Lawrence River, which he named on this occasion, as far as the Indian village of Stadacona, where modern Quebec stands. He later proceeded up the river to the Indian village of Hochelaga and climbed the hill behind the village to observe the Ottawa River and Lachine Rapids. Cartier called the hill Mont Real (Mount Royal), from which the name of the city of Montreal is derived. After spending the winter in Stadacona, Cartier sailed for France on a course south of Newfoundland, and for the first time passed through what is now called Cabot Strait.Beginning his third voyage in 1541, Cartier again sailed up the St. Lawrence, this time as far as Lachine Rapids. His purpose was to establish a colony in Canada, but the mission was not successful. He returned to France the following year. He settled in St.-Malo and wrote an account of his expeditions that was published in 1545.</text>
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card_9750.xml
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<text>Cavendish, Thomas (c. 1560-c. 1592), English navigator and buccaneer, the third circumnavigator of the globe. Cavendish sought to retrace the exploits (1557-80) of the English navigator Sir Francis Drake. Setting out in 1586, he founded Port Desire (now Puerto Deseado, Argentina), sailed through the Straits of Magellan, and plundered Spanish settlements and ships as far north as California. The voyage was completed in 2 years, 50 days. Cavendish died while attempting a second circumnavigation.</text>
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card_10191.xml
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<text>Champlain, Samuel de (1567?-1635), French explorer, known as the father of New France.Champlain was born in Hiers Brouage. In 1599 he made his first voyage to the New World, visiting the West Indies and Spanish America. In areport of his observations to Henry IV, king of France, he suggested that a canal across the Isthmus of Panama might “shorten the voyage to the South Sea [Pacific Ocean] by more than 1500 leagues.” In 1603 Champlain made his first trip to North America, accompanying an expedition sent to help colonize the New World. On this trip Champlain explored the Saint Lawrence River to the Lachine Rapids. As geographer and cartographer for the 1604 expedition of the French explorer Pierre du Guast, sieur de Monts, Champlain explored the Bay of Fundy and the New England coast as far south as Massachusetts. His accounts and maps of the territory he explored have been of great value to historians and are especially interesting for their descriptions of the habits and characteristics of the Indians. In 1608 he sailed from France for the fourth time, on this occasion as lieutenant governor of New France, and on July 3 he founded the first European settlement on the site of the present city of Quebec. He formed alliances with the Indians of Canada and helped them in their wars with the Iroquois of northern New York, thus establishing friendly relations between the French and the Canadian Indians that continued as long as the French held Canada.While on an expedition with the Indians in 1609, Champlain sighted the lake that bears his name. Two years later he built a trading station at Montreal. He also explored the inland waterways of what are now southern Ontario and northern New York State. In 1615 the French explorer etienne Br˚le accompanied Champlain on an exploration of Lake Ontario. In 1629, when an English raiding party captured the settlement of Quebec, Champlain was taken prisoner. He was held in England until 1632. Champlain returned to the New World and was governor of New France from 1633 until his death.</text>
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card_10387.xml
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<text>Clark, William (1770-1838), American soldier and explorer, born in Caroline Co., Va. About 1789 he entered the U.S. Army; while serving with Gen. Anthony Wayne in an Indian campaign in 1795, he met the American explorer Meriwether Lewis. In 1803 Lewis asked Clark to join him on an expedition through the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase. What is now known as the Lewis and Clark expedition (q.v.) began at Saint Louis, Mo., on May 14, 1804, and ended at the same city on Sept. 23, 1806. During the long journey Clark drew maps and illustrated wildlife of the region. After his return he worked on the reports of the trip. In 1807 he was commissioned a brigadier general in the militia in what was later the Missouri Territory and became superintendent of Indian affairs at St. Louis. He became governor of the territory in 1813 and spent the next eight years quelling Indian disturbances, which were particularly bitter during the War of 1812. He later turned to surveying, and in 1828 he designed Paducah, Ky.</text>
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card_10651.xml
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<text>Cook, Frederick Albert (1865-1940), American explorer and physician, born in Hortonville, N.Y., and educated at New York Medical College. He was appointed surgeon for the Greenland expedition of 1891-92 led by the American explorer Robert Peary and held the same position on the Belgian Antarctic expedition of 1897-99. Beginning in 1903 he made the first of several attempts to climb Mount McKinley in Alaska. His claim to have succeeded in 1906 was disputed by many. The following year he led an expedition in the Arctic region, and in September 1909 he claimed that he had reached the North Pole on April 21, 1908, one year earlier than Peary. The conflicting claims touched off a widespread controversy. Cook was discredited by scientists, but he received acclaim from audiences who crowded to hear him lecture. His book, My Attainment of the Pole (1909), sold widely. In 1925 he was imprisoned for mail fraud through his connection with a fraudulent oil transaction. In 1930 he was released, and in 1940 he received a presidential pardon.</text>
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card_10873.xml
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<text>Cook, James (1728-79), British explorer and navigator, famous for his three great voyages of exploration in the South Pacific Ocean and the North American coastal waters.Cook, popularly called Capt. Cook, was born in Marton, England, the son of a farm laborer. After spending his early years as an apprentice with a firm of shipowners, he enlisted in the British navy in 1755. Within four years he had become a master, and he spent the years 1756 to 1767 charting the North Atlantic coastal waters off Newfoundland and Nova Scotia and the Saint Lawrence River below Quebec. In 1768, as lieutenant in command of the Endeavour, he undertook his first great voyage to the South Pacific, on which he safely carried a group of British astronomers to the recently discovered island of Tahiti to observe the transit of the planet Venus across the sun in June 1769. He then proceeded to New Zealand, taking formal possession of parts of both main islands and accurately charting 3860 km (2400 mi) of coastline for the first time. In 1770 he discovered the eastern coast of Australia, which he charted and claimed for Great Britain under the name of New South Wales.On his return to England in 1771 Cook was promoted to the rank of commander. In 1772, in command of the Resolution, and accompanied by another ship, the Adventure, he set out on his second great expedition, a search for the fabled southern continent, Terra Australis, of which Africa was thought to be a part. He entered the South Pacific, where he sailed along the edge of the Antarctic ice block; on Jan. 16, 1773, he made the first crossing of the Antarctic Circle. In 1773 he discovered the islands that were named after him. In 1774 he charted the New Hebrides, the Marquesas, and Easter Island, and discovered several Pacific Islands, including New Caledonia and Niue. After his return to England in July 1775, Cook was made a fellow in the Royal Society and was awarded the Copley medal for scientific achievement. His great 3-year expedition had proved that no southern continent existed, only the great ice mass of the Antarctic region; the voyage was also notable for the remarkable health record maintained by the crew. Cook’s insistence on proper hygiene and diet greatly reduced the number of scurvy cases during the expedition.In July 1776, Cook sailed again to determine whether a Northwest Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans existed north of the North American continent. During the first part of the expedition he again visited the mid-Pacific, discovering and charting in the early part of 1778 some of the Sandwich Islands, which were later renamed the Hawaiian Islands. Reaching the coast of the North American continent, off the coast of present-day Oregon, he searched in vain for a Northwest Passage, charting the western coastline as far north as the Bering Strait, where ice turned him back. He then returned to the Sandwich Islands, where he was killed during a skirmish with islanders over the theft of a boat.</text>
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card_11146.xml
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<text>Cosa, Juan de la (1460?-1510), Spanish navigator and cartographer, born at SantoÒa. As master of the Santa Maria, Cosa accompanied Christopher Columbus on his first voyage to America in 1492-93 and was with him on his second voyage in 1493. In 1499 he participated in an expedition under the Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda (1465?-1515) to explore the north coast of South America. The following year Cosa made a large map of the world, probably the first to include the new continent. This map was forgotten until its discovery in the 19th century by the German naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt in Paris; it is now in Madrid. Cosa accompanied Ojeda in 1510 on an expedition that attempted to land at the site of Cartagena (now in Colombia). The entire party, except for Ojeda and one other man, was massacred by Indians.</text>
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card_11306.xml
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<text>Dampier, William (1652-1715), English navigator, explorer, and buccaneer, who, despite his controversial career, has gained a reputation as a brilliant pioneer hydrographer whose logs of his voyages are of lasting importance.Early Life. Dampier was born in May 1652 in East Coker, Somersetshire, the son of a tenant farmer. A seaman at the age of 16, Dampier was assistant manager of a plantation in Jamaica in the West Indies at the age of 22, then foremast hand on a lumber ketch bound from Jamaica for Campeche in New Spain, and from 1675 to 1678 alternated between lumbering in Central America and buccaneering in the Caribbean Sea. In 1679, after a brief return to England, he crossed the Isthmus of Panama in the course of a piratical expedition along the Pacific coast of South America from present-day Mexico to Chile.Voyage Around the World. From his next voyage, a circumnavigation of the world, Dampier emerged as an important explorer and hydrographer. Sailing from Virginia to Africa and back to Cape Horn in 1683, he crossed the Atlantic Ocean twice, then crossed the Pacific Ocean to the present-day Philippines and China, sailed south to the Australian coast and Sumatra, and finally, in 1691, reached England. Throughout the voyage he made meticulous surveys, charts, and logs. Published as Voyage Round the World (1697) and Voyages and Descriptions (1699), they excited interest in the seas they described.Voyages for the Admiralty. As a result, the English Admiralty office sent Dampier in 1699 on a voyage of exploration to the South Seas. Charting currents and the coastline, Dampier explored Australia and New Guinea. He named New Britain upon discovering that it was an island; he also discovered and named Dampier Archipelago, a group of islands off north-western Australia, and Dampier Strait, which lies between New Britain and Umboi Island. He described this voyage in Voyage to New Holland (1703-9).Last Privateering Voyages. In spite of the fact that a court-martial in 1702 found Dampier guilty of cruelty to his subordinates, he was put in command of a two-vessel privateering expedition to the South Seas in 1703. A member of the crew on this voyage, the Scottish mariner Alexander Selkirk, who had quarreled with a superior officer, asked to be marooned in the Juan Fernandez Islands; thus began the adventures that inspired the English novelist Daniel Defoe to write the classic tale of Robinson Crusoe (1719). Dampier’s expedition, which lasted four years, was financially unsuccessful; upon their return to England, his crew charged Dampier with cowardice, brutality, and drunkenness. As a result of these charges, he made only one more privateering expedition, this time restricted to serving as a pilot, from 1708 to 1711; in the course of this voyage Selkirk was rescued. Dampier died penniless in March 1715 in London.</text>
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card_11942.xml
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<text>De Long, George Washington (1844-81), U.S. explorer of the Arctic. In July 1879 he set out from San Francisco in an attempt to reach the North Pole. By September his ship was trapped in ice east of Wrangel Island. It then drifted for 21 months before being crushed and sinking. De Long and 13 of his crew died of cold and starvation, never reaching their destination, the Siberian coast, about 965 km (about 600 mi) away. Wreckage from the ship was found three years later on an ice floe off Greenland, supporting the theory of transarctic ice drift.</text>
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card_12128.xml
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<text>Dias, Bartolomeu (1450?-1500), Portuguese navigator, first to round the Cape of Good Hope, Africa. In 1481 he commanded a vessel in a flotilla that King John II of Portugal sent to the Gold Coast of Africa. Five years later, the king gave Dias command of an expedition to continue the exploration of the western coast of Africa, begun in 1482 by the navigator Diogo Cam, who had sailed south to a point near Walvis Bay. Dias set sail from Lisbon in August 1487; in February 1488 he rounded the southern end of the African continent as far as the estuary of what was later named the Great Fish River. Dias thus opened a sea route from Europe to the Far East, which European merchants and statesmen considered essential to the prosperity of Europe.On his return voyage, Dias stopped at the tablelands at the southeastern end of Africa, which he named Cabo Tormentoso, or Cape of Storms. King John later gave it the name Cabo da Bıa Esperança, or Cape of Good Hope. Dias explored a total of about 2028 km (about 1260 mi) of previously unknown African coast. He returned to Lisbon in December 1488. In 1500 he sailed in an expedition under the Portuguese navigator Pedro ¡lvares Cabral and participated in the exploration of Brazil. Dias later perished in a storm off the Cape of Good Hope. His name is also spelled Diaz.</text>
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card_12482.xml
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<text>Drake, Sir Francis (1540?-96), English navigator, born near Tavistock. He served an apprenticeship as a mariner, and in 1567 he was given his first command. His ship, the Judith, was one of a squadron of vessels led by a kinsman of Drake, the English navigator Sir John Hawkins, on a slave-trading voyage in the Gulf of Mexico. All but two ships of the expedition were lost when attacked by a Spanish squadron. In 1570 and 1571 Drake made two profitable trading voyages to the West Indies. In 1572 he commanded two vessels in a marauding expedition against Spanish ports in the Caribbean Sea. During this voyage, Drake first saw the Pacific Ocean; he captured the port of Nombre de DÌos on the Isthmus of Panama and destroyed the nearby town of Portobelo. He returned to England with a cargo of Spanish silver and a reputation as a brilliant privateer. He was sent next to Ireland to help quell the rebellion there from 1573 to 1576.In 1577 Drake was secretly commissioned by Elizabeth I, queen of England, to undertake an expedition against the Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast of the New World. With five ships and 166 men, Drake set sail from Plymouth, England, on Dec. 13, 1577. After crossing the Atlantic Ocean, two of the ships had to be abandoned in the RÌo de la Plata estuary of South America. In August 1578 the three remaining ships left the Atlantic Ocean and entered the Strait of Magellan at the southern tip of the South American continent. Sixteen days later they sailed into the Pacific Ocean. A series of violent storms, lasting more than 50 days, destroyed one ship. Another sailed back to England. Drake, blown far south, sailed on in his flagship, the Golden Hind.The lone vessel moved northward along the Pacific coast of South America, plundering ValparaÌso and other Spanish ports; Drake also captured Spanish ships and subsequently made use of their more accurate charts. Seeking an eastward passage back to the Atlantic Ocean, Drake continued to sail north, possibly reaching as far as lat 48° N, near the present U.S.-Canadian border. Unable to find a passage, he came about and headed south. The Golden Hind put in for repairs at an inlet (now called Drake’s Bay) north of present-day San Francisco. Drake claimed the land for England, naming it New Albion.On July 23, 1579, Drake set sail again, this time heading westward across the Pacific Ocean. In November he reached the Moluccas, a group of islands in the southwest Pacific. He stopped at Celebes and Java, islands of Indonesia, rounded the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa, and reached England in September 1580. Bearing a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasure, he was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the world. Seven months later he was knighted aboard the Golden Hind by Queen Elizabeth. He became mayor of Plymouth in 1581 and served as a member of Parliament in 1584 and 1585.Later in 1585 Drake sailed again with a large fleet for the West Indies. He raided many Spanish settlements, including Saint Augustine in present-day Florida. Before returning, he put in at the first English colony in the New World, on Roanoke Island, off the coast of what is now North Carolina, and brought the unsuccessful colonists back to England. According to tradition, Drake introduced tobacco to England as a result of this visit to North America.In 1587 war with Spain was recognized as imminent, and Drake was dispatched by the queen to destroy the fleet being assembled by the Spanish in the harbor of Cadiz. He accomplished most of his purpose and in the following year served as vice admiral of the English fleet that defeated the rebuilt Spanish Armada. In 1589 Drake was unsuccessful in an expedition designed to destroy the few remaining Spanish ships. He returned to Plymouth and to Parliament. In 1595 the queen sent Drake and Hawkins on an expedition against the Spanish forces in the West Indies. This mission as well was a failure. Both Drake and Hawkins contracted dysentery in the Caribbean, and their bodies were buried at sea.</text>
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card_12632.xml
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<text>Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni (c. 1831-1903), American explorer, born in France, probably in Paris. He spent his youth in Gabon, French Equatorial Africa, with his father, a French trader. In 1852 he went to the U.S. and later became a naturalized citizen. He led an expedition to central Africa in 1855 and returned to the U.S. four years later, bringing with him many previously unknown birds and animals, including the first gorillas ever seen in the U.S. His description of the expedition, Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa (1861), aroused controversy, however, because it conflicted with prevailing geographical, zoological, and ethnological theories. Du Chaillu led a second expedition to Africa, confirming his first report and verifying rumors about Pygmy tribes in the forests of central Africa in A Journey to Ashango-Land (1867). After traveling (1871-74) in northern Europe, he wrote The Land of the Midnight Sun (1881).</text>
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card_12975.xml
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<text>Ellsworth, Lincoln (1880-1951), American explorer and engineer, and a leader of the first transarctic and transantarctic flights. He was born in Chicago on May 12, 1880.Ellsworth organized and led (1924) a geological survey of the Andes Mountains from the Pacific Ocean to the headwaters of the Amazon River. He became an associate and financial supporter of the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen, and in May 1925 they and four companions attempted to fly over the North Pole. They took off from Svalbard (Spitsbergen) in two amphibious airplanes but were forced to land just short of the pole. The following year, with the Italian explorer and engineer Umberto Nobile (1885-1978), Ellsworth and Amundsen carried out a 5460-km (3390-mi) flight in the dirigible Norge, from Kongsfjord, Svalbard, across the North Pole to Teller, Alaska. In November 1935 Ellsworth made the first airplane flight across the Antarctic from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea. He collaborated with Amundsen in writing Our Polar Flight (1925) and First Crossing of the Polar Sea (1927). Ellsworth also wrote Search (1932) and Beyond Horizons (1938). He died in New York City on May 26, 1951.</text>
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card_13189.xml
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<text>Emin Pasha, Mehmed (1840-92), German explorer and administrator in Africa. Originally named Eduard Schnitzer, he was born in Oppeln, Silesia (now Opole, Poland), on March 2, 1840. He was administrator in Sudan and made important contributions to the study of the geography, natural history, and ethnography of nor theastern Africa. He studied medicine at the University of Berlin. From 1865 to 1875 he served the Turkish government as quarantine medical officer in Montenegro and Albania. In the latter year he journeyed to Cairo, where he was appointed medical officer in the Egyptian army under the British general Charles George Gordon and became known as Emin Effendi. Gordon named him governor of the equatorial province of Sudan, with the title of bey, in 1878, and in that capacity Emin Pasha conducted explorations of eastern Sudan and central Africa that contributed greatly to geographical and scientific knowledge. In 1883 a revolt broke out in Sudan under the leadership of the Mahdi (q.v.); the Egyptian government abandoned the province in the following year and Emin Pasha eventually found himself isolated by the rebel forces. In April 1888 he was rescued at Wadelai by an expedition led by the American explorer Sir Henry Morton Stanley, who tried in vain to persuade him to return to Egypt. In a second Mahdist revolt later that year, Emin Pasha was deposed and imprisoned. After his release he returned to Egypt, where he resigned his office. In 1890 he was commissioned by the German East Africa Co. to lead an expedition into those regions of central Africa claimed by Germany. He was killed by Arabs on Oct. 23, 1892, at Kanema, in the Congo (now Zaire).</text>
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card_13359.xml
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<text>Eric The Red (c. 950-1001), Norwegian explorer, the first European to explore Greenland and to found a colony there. His second son, Leif Ericson, is believed to have been one of the first Europeans to reach North America.Eric, whose patronymic was Thorvaldsson, was called Eric the Red because of his red hair. When his father was exiled for manslaughter, Eric left Norway with him, and the family settled in Iceland. In 980-81, faced with manslaughter charges himself, Eric decided to explore land sighted by his friend GunnbjÀÜrn ‚ÅÑlfsson to the west of Iceland. The course Eric followed took him to the island he named Greenland. Returning to Iceland, he persuaded several shiploads of relatives and friends to join him in colonizing the new land in about 985. Because the eastern coast was sheathed in ice, he rounded Cape Farewell in the south and founded a settlement called Brattahlid. Others of his party established another settlement near present-day Nuuk (Godth|b). Both communities were on the western coast.An injury prevented Eric from accompanying his son Leif on the voyage that eventually took him to Vinland (North America) in about 1001. He died the winter after Leif returned home. Another son, Thorvald (d. 1004?), also visited Vinland.</text>
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card_13593.xml
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<text>Ericson, Leif, patronymic also spelled Ericsson, Eireksson, or Erikson (c. 975-1020), Icelandic explorer thought to have been one of the first Europeans to set foot on North American soil. He was the second son of Eric the Red, who in about 985 established the first European settlement on Greenland after he was exiled from Iceland.Leif, a sailor like Eric the Red, voyaged from Greenland, where he was living with his father, to Norway, the homeland of his family, shortly before 1000. There, according to one tradition, King Olaf I was responsible for converting him to Christianity and later sent him back to Greenland to win its Viking settlers over to the Christian faith. Journeying westward, Leif lost his way and happened upon the North American shore.Another more reliable source, however, states that an Icelandic trader named Bjarni HerjÛlfsson (fl. 986) was the first to sight land in North America. Leif later bought Bjarni’s ship and, based on his description, retraced the voyage. As he sailed, he touched Helluland (perhaps Baffin Island), Markland (perhaps Labrador), and finally Vinland. The precise identity of Vinland remains controversial among scholars; some say it is Newfoundland, others, Nova Scotia or even New England. In 1963, however, archaeologists found ruins of a Viking-type settlement at L’Anse-aux-Meadows, in nor thern Newfoundland, which correspond to Leif’s description of Vinland.On his return journey, Leif came upon a wrecked trading vessel whose crew he rescued; for this deed he received the entire rich cargo and the nickname Leif the Lucky. After he reached Greenland, he carried out his commission to bring Christianity to the settlers. One of his converts was his mother, ThjÛdhild, who is said to have built Greenland’s first Christian church at Brattahlid. To his brother Thorvald (d. 1004?), Leif lent his ship for further exploration of Vinland. There, according to some sagas, Thorvald was killed by natives during the winter of 1004-5.</text>
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card_13913.xml
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<text>Flinders, Matthew (1774-1814), British explorer and navigator, born at Donington, near Boston, England. A self-educated navigator, he sailed to New South Wales in 1795 and explored an unknown strait now known as Bass Strait between Australia and Van Diemen’s Land (now Tasmania). On his return to England, he took command (1801) of an expedition to investigate the coastline of Australia, which he circled in a counter-clockwise direction, threading the Great Barrier Reef through what is now called Flinders Passage and surveying the Gulf of Carpentaria in the north. His charts of the coastline were remarkably accurate. After completing his work in 1803, he sailed for England. His ship was wrecked on an uncharted reef, however, and he returned to Australia in the ship’s cutter, a remarkable 1127-km (about 700-mi) journey.Setting sail in another vessel, plagued by leaks, Flinders was forced to put in at Mauritius, then a possession of France, which was at war with England. Imprisoned for almost seven years as a spy, Flinders spent his time recording the first method of compensating for compass deviations caused by iron in a ship. Released in 1810, he returned to England and spent three years writing A Voyage to Terra Australis (1814), published on the day of his death. The name of this outstand ing hydrographer is perpetuated in a river in Queensland, several islands, a mountain range, and a naval depot near Melbourne. Flinders’s consistent use of the term Australia for this part of the world led to acceptance of the name.</text>
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card_14211.xml
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<text>Franklin, Sir John (1786-1847), British rear admiral, explorer of the Arctic, and discoverer of the Northwest Passage.Franklin was born in Spilsby, Lincolnshire, England. He participated in the battles of Copenhagen in 1801 and Trafalgar in 1805 during the Napoleonic Wars. In 1818 he commanded the Trent in an unsuccessful voyage to the Arctic, and from 1819 to 1822 he commanded an overland expedition commissioned to explore the northern coast of Canada east from the mouth of the Coppermine River. In a subsequent Arctic expedition (1825-27), he traced the North American coastline from the mouth of the Mackenzie River on the Beaufort Sea in northwestern Canada to about the 150th meridian in northeastern Alaska. In 1829 he was knighted and awarded the gold medal of the Geographical Society of Paris. From 1836 to 1843 he was lieutenant governor of Van Diemen’s Land (now Tasmania), where he established a college and scientific society. In 1845 he was appointed commander of an expedition to discover the Northwest Passage. The expedition, consisting of the Erebus and the Terror, with 129 officers and men, was last seen by a whaling vessel on July 26, 1845, in Baffin Bay.Subsequently, many searching expeditions were dispatched to the Arctic. In July 1857 Lady Jane Franklin (1792-1875), Franklin’s second wife, outfitted the Fox, which succeeded in discovering the history of the ill-fated expedition. The search party obtained from the Inuit (Eskimo) in Boothia Peninsula many remains of the expedition. A record found at Victory Point related details of Franklin’s expedition up to April 25, 1848. According to this record, in 1846 the Erebus and Terror had navigated Peel Sound and Franklin Strait in a southerly direction, but had been stopped by ice between Victoria Island and King William Island. The two ships, icebound from September 1846, had been deserted on April 22, 1848. At that time the total casualties had been 9 officers and 15 men; Franklin had died on June 11, 1847. The survivors left the ships on April 26, 1848, but apparently perished some days later.A U.S. expedition (1878-80) discovered the wreckage of one of Franklin’s ships and skeletons of members of his party. A monument commemorating Franklin was erected in 1875 in Westminster Abbey. In the 1980s a Canadian anthropologist, through studies of tissue remains of the crew, determined that they had most likely succumbed to the effects of lead poisoning.</text>
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card_14447.xml
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<text>Frobisher, Sir Martin (1535?-94), English navigator, one of the earliest explorers to seek the Northwest Passage to the Orient, and among the greatest of Elizabethan seamen.Frobisher was born about 1535 in Altofts, Yorkshire, and spent his early years in London after his father’s death. He was apprenticed as a cabin boy in 1544, his skills and daring as a seaman brought him a steady rise in rank, and by 1565 he had become a captain.In 1576 Frobisher was placed in command of an expedition to the New World, the first attempt by an Englishman to search for the Northwest Passage. On June 7, 1576, he set sail with three small ships, the Gabriel, the Michael, and a pinnace that was lost in a storm. The Michael deserted soon afterward and the Gabriel continued alone, sighting the mouth of what is now known as Frobisher Bay on Baffin Island—and mistaking it for the entrance to the Northwest Passage—a little more than a month after starting out on the voyage. On his return to England Frobisher brought back a few pieces of “black earth,” which were rumored to contain gold. In 1577 he returned to Canada with another fleet outfitted by Queen Elizabeth I of England. Both this expedition and a subsequent voyage were unsuccessful in finding valuable ore or in establishing colonies, but Frobisher continued in the favor of the queen.In 1585, as vice admiral on the Primrose, he participated in an expedition to the West Indies to raid its Spanish colonies, led by the English seaman and adventurer Sir Francis Drake. In 1588 Frobisher was knighted for his valiant role in the defeat of the Spanish Armada. In 1591 he settled in Yorkshire, but soon tired of country life, and in 1592 he commanded a fleet outfitted by Sir Walter Raleigh to harry Spanish merchant ships bringing gold from Panama. In November 1594, engaged in the relief of Fort Crozon near Brest, France, against Spanish forces, Frobisher was mortally wounded and died on Nov. 22, 1594, in Plymouth, England.</text>
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card_14791.xml
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<text>Fuchs, Sir Vivian Ernest (1908- ), British geologist and explorer of the Antarctic, born on the Isle of Wight. He received an M.A. degree from the University of Cambridge in 1929 and in the same year served as geologist with the Cambridge East Greenland Expedition. During the 1930s, Fuchs was a geologist with two expeditions engaged in geological and survey work in east Africa. He was commissioned a second lieutenant in the British army in World War II and rose to the rank of major. In November 1957, Fuchs set out as head of the 12-member British team of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, on the first crossing of Antarctica, about a 3473-km (about 2158-mi), 99-day journey from the Weddell Sea, across the South Pole to the Ross Sea. Equipped with snow tractors, the Fuchs party traversed much of the previously unexplored area of the Antarctic landmass and gathered important scientific information. The expedition is considered one of the outstand ing accomplishments undertaken in connection with the International Geophysical Year and earned Fuchs a knighthood in 1958. With Sir Edmund Hillary, Fuchs wrote The Crossing of Antarctica (1960).</text>
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card_15047.xml
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<text>Gama, Vasco da (1469?-1524), Portuguese explorer and navigator, who was the first European to reach India by the sea route.Da Gama was born in Sines, Alemtejo (now Baixo Alentejo). In his youth he participated in the wars against Castile. Commissioned by Emanuel, king of Portugal, to reach India by sea, da Gama sailed from Lisbon with four ships on July 9, 1497. In November he rounded the Cape of Good Hope (first rounded in 1488 by the Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Dias) and anchored at Malindi on the east coast of Africa. With the aid of a pilot secured through Indian merchants in that port, da Gama directed his course eastward and on May 20, 1498, reached Calicut (now Kozhikode) on the Malabar Coast of India. Because of the hostility of Muslim merchants, he could not establish a Portuguese trading station there. After fighting his way out of the harbor of Calicut, he returned to Portugal in 1499. Da Gama was welcomed with praise, rewarded financially, and permitted to use the prefix Dom with his name. To follow up the voyages of da Gama, the Portuguese navigator Pedro ¬°lvares Cabral was immediately dispatched to India, and he established a Portuguese trading post in Calicut. When news reached Portugal that those stationed in Calicut by Cabral had been massacred, da Gama, who had been given the title of admiral of India, was sent to avenge that act. On the route to Calicut he established Portuguese colonies at Mozambique and Sof ala (now part of Mozambique), in east Africa. After arriving in Calicut, da Gama subdued the inhabitants and forced the raja to make peace. Bearing a rich cargo of spice, he left India and sailed back to Portugal in 1503. For the next 20 years he saw no active sea duty. He received the title of count of Vidigueira in 1519, and in 1524 he was named viceroy and sent to India to correct the mounting corruption among the Portuguese authorities there.Da Gama reached India in the fall of 1524, but he died in Cochin only three months after his arrival.</text>
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card_15357.xml
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<text>Gannett, Henry (1846-1914), American cartographer, born in Bath, Maine, and educated at Harvard University in the Lawrence Scientific School and the Hooper Mining School. He was (1872-79) a topographer for the Hayden Survey, directed by the American geologist Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden (1829-87), preparing maps in Wyoming and Colorado. The U.S. Geological Survey retained him as chief geographer in 1882. Gannett was the geographer for the 10th (1880), 11th (1890), and 12th (1900) censuses of the U.S. and assistant director of the census of the Philippine Islands (1902) and Cuba (1907-8). He was one of the founders and later a president of the National Geographic Society. Among his works are A Manual of Topographic Surveying (1893), The Building of a Nation (1895), and Gazetteer of Texas (1902).</text>
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card_15438.xml
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<text>Gosnold, Bartholomew (d. 1607), English explorer and colonizer. In 1602 he was in command of the ship Concord, which sailed along the North American coast from Maine to Narragansett Bay. On that voyage he named Cape Cod, some of the islands in Nantucket Sound, including Martha’s Vineyard, and the Elizabeth Islands. When he returned to England, Gosnold promoted the establishment of colonies in the areas he had explored and aided the merchants who secured a charter from King James I of England to colonize Virginia. Gosnold was appointed to command the God Speed, one of three ships that transported English settlers in 1606-7 to Jamestown. In 1607 Gosnold was appointed by the king to the council of the colony. After several months in Jamestown he died of fever.</text>
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card_15844.xml
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<text>Gottman, Jean Iona (1915- ), American geographer, born in Russia, who origin ated the idea of the megalopolis to describe a large urbanized area. He analyzed civilization on both sides of the Atlantic, emphasizing the interplay of geography and urbanization in international relations. After studying at the Sorbonne in Paris, he served (1942-44) as a consultant to the Foreign Economic Administration in the U.S. and taught (1943-48) at Johns Hopkins University. His publications include A Geography of Europe (1950) and Megalopolis: The Urbanized Seaboard of the United States (1961).</text>
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card_15889.xml
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<text>Gray, Robert (1755-1806), American explorer and sea captain, born in Tiverton, R.I. During the American Revolution he served in the navy. In 1787 he sailed from Boston to the Pacific Northwest as commander of the Lady Washington, one of two ships on a fur-trading expedition subsidized by Boston merchants. After a load of furs was procured from coastal Indians, Gray was made head of the expedition and placed in command of the Columbia. He sailed to Chin a and then westward, arriving in Boston on Aug. 10, 1790, the first American to have circumnavigated the globe. A second voyage to the Pacific Northwest led to his discovery, in 1792, of the mouth of the Columbia River, which he named after his ship. He completed the trip around the world a second time, arriving in Boston in July 1793. His discoveries in the Pacific Northwest gave the U.S. a basis for claim to the Oregon country.</text>
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card_16239.xml
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<text>Greely, Adolphus Washington (1844-1935), American explorer of the Arctic and army officer.Greely was born on March 27, 1844, in Newburyport, Mass. After participating as a volunteer with the Union forces during the American Civil War, he entered the regular army in 1867. He was subsequently appointed to the signal service and from 1876 until 1879 supervised the erection of more than 3200 km (2000 mi) of telegraph line in Texas, the Dakotas, and Montana. In 1881 he became commander of an American expedition to establish one of a chain of 13 circumpolar meteorological stations recommended by the International Geographical Congress in 1879. His expedition discovered new territories north of Greenland, and several members of the group reached 83°24’ N lat, the northernmost point attained to that date. Relief parties sent out during 1882 and 1883 failed to reach the expedition, and during the winter of 1883 all the party except Greely and six of his men died. In the spring of 1884 survivors were rescued by U.S. Navy Commander Winfield Scott Schley. For his service in the Arctic, Greely was awarded the Founder’s Medal of the Royal Geographical Society. In 1887 he was made chief signal officer and brigadier general, becoming the first volunteer and enlisted man in the U.S. Army to attain that rank. During the Spanish-American War he was in charge of constructing telegraph lines and establishing communications in Puerto Rico, Chin a, Cuba, and the Philippines. He was later given a similar commission in Alaska, establishing the first wireless stations in the territory. Greely supervised relief operations in San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake. In that year he was promoted to major general, and two years later he retired from the army. He wrote Three Years of Arctic Service (2 vol., 1885), Handbook of Alaska (1912), and The Polar Regions in the Twentieth Century (1928).</text>
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card_16605.xml
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<text>Grosvenor, Gilbert Hovey (1875-1966), American geographer and editor, born in Constantinople (now Fstanbul), Turkey, and educated at Amherst College, Mass. In 1899 he became a director of the National Geographic Society and a member of the staff of the National Geographic Magazine, of which he was editor from 1903 to 1954. He was also president of the National Geographic Society from 1920 to 1954. Under Grosvenor the society grew into a major organization for scientific research and sponsored extensive work in geography, archaeology, and anthropology, especially in the form of field expeditions. His son, Melville Bell Grosvenor (1901-82), also served the National Geographic Society and its magazine in a variety of functions.</text>
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card_16780.xml
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<text>Hall, Charles Francis (1821-71), American explorer of the Arctic. In 1860-62 he explored the southeast coast of Baffin Island, finding traces of the Inuit (Eskimo) attack on the English navigator Martin Frobisher in 1576-78. In 1864-69, he traveled about 4830 km (about 3000 mi) by sledge and learned from the Inuit the fate of Sir John Franklin’s expedition, lost in 1845. His own death in 1871, while attempting to reach the North Pole, stirred controversy in the 1960s, when an inquiry revealed sufficient traces of arsenic in his exhumed body to have caused his death.</text>
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card_17014.xml
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<text>Hanno, Called the Great. 3d century B.C. Carthaginian politician. Opponent of Hamilcar Barca and Hannibal; as representative of landed aristocracy, advocated peace with Rome during Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.); after battle of Zama (202), was one of ambassadors sent to Scipio Africanus to sue for peace.</text>
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card_17383.xml
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<text>Hedin, Sven Anders (1865-1952), Swedish explorer and geographer, born in Stockholm, and educated at the universities of Uppsala, Berlin, and Halle. During his first major Asian expedition, he crossed the Pamirs, charted Lop Nor (Lake) in China, and finally arrived at Peking. He then journeyed to Tibet by way of Mongolia, Siberia, and the Gobi Desert. Hedin explored Tibet and Xinjiang (Sinkiang), identified the sources of the Brahmaputra, Indus, and Sutlej rivers, and, in 1906, explored and named the Trans-Himalayas. Accounts of these travels appeared in Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia, 1899-1902 (8 vol., 1904-8), Trans-Himalaya (3 vol., 1909-12), and Southern Tibet (12 vol., 1917-22). In 1927 Hedin led an expedition of Chinese and Swedish scientists into Central Asia. He wrote Through Asia (1898), The Conquest of Tibet (1935), My Life as an Explorer (1926), and many other popular accounts of his travels.</text>
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card_17517.xml
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<text>Hennepin, Louis (1626-1705?), Flemish Recollect friar and explorer in North America, first European to explore the upper Mississippi River.Hennepin was born in Ath (now in Belgium) on May 12, 1626. He traveled to Quebec in 1675, where, for the next two years, he worked as a missionary among the Iroquois Indians. In 1678 he accompanied the French explorer Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle, on an expedition through the Great Lakes to the Illinois River, on the banks of which they built Fort Creve Coeur, near the site of present-day Peoria. From there Hennepin was sent by La Salle on a voyage to explore the upper Mississippi River, which he did by canoe. Hennepin explored and named the Falls of Saint Anthony (present-day Minneapolis, Minn.). Proceeding further, he was captured by Sioux Indians, with whom he lived until his rescue the following year by a French exploring party from the Lake Superior region. After returning to France (1683), Father Hennepin published A Description of Louisiana (1683; trans. 1938), an account of his travels, which was later exposed as plagiarism of La Salle’s own accounts. For offering La Salle’s narrative as his own and for claiming to have discovered the mouth of the Mississippi, Hennepin was exiled from France. He later wrote A New Voyage (1696; trans. 1698) and A New Discovery of a Vast Country in America (1697; trans. 1698).</text>
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card_17726.xml
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<text>Henry The Navigator (1394-1460), prince of Portugal, noted as the patron of navigation and exploration, born in Oporto. He was the third son of John I, king of Portugal. Henry participated in the capture of Ceuta in North Africa from the Moors in 1415. Subsequently he made his residence at Sagres, Portugal, near Cape Saint Vincent, and there established an observatory and the first school for navigators in Europe. Henry also made improvements in the art of shipbuilding. The caravel, a sailing ship, was designed at Sagres. He made no voyages himself, but under his direction many important expeditions were undertaken along the west coast of Africa. Henry’s navigators reached Madeira in 1420, sailed around Cape Bojador in 1434, sailed to Cape Blanc in 1441, rounded Cape Verde in 1445, and reached the mouth of the Gambia River in present-day Gambia about 1446.</text>
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card_17964.xml
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<text>Heyerdahl, Thor (1914- ), Norwegian anthropologist and explorer, known for his theories about migration patterns of ancient peoples.Heyerdahl was born in Larvik on Oct. 6, 1914, and was educated at the University of Oslo. Hoping to prove that South American Indians could have migrated to Pacific islands, in 1947 Heyerdahl and a small crew successfully sailed the 6920 km (4300 mi) from Callao, Peru, to the Tuamotu Islands of Polynesia in 101 days on abalsa raft, named the Kon-Tiki, which was modeled after rafts used by ancient Peruvians. Heyerdahl led archaeological expeditions to the Galapagos Islands (1954) and to Easter Island and the East Pacific (1955-56) to test the same theory of migration by South Americans.To prove that ancient Egyptians could have reached the Americas and founded the Aztec and Inca cultures 4000 years ago, Heyerdahl attempted to cross the Atlantic from North Africa in a papyrus boat (Ra I, 1969; Ra II, 1970). The first attempt foundered after 4500 km (2800 mi), but the second crossing achieved a safe landing at Bridgetown, Barbados, in 57 days. In the late 1970s Heyerdahl began a 9980-km (6200-mi) journey in a reed boat (Tigris) to demonstrate a possible migration route used 5000 years ago by Sumerians traveling from Iraq to the Indian Ocean. This trip was abandoned because of fighting in Ethiopia that prohibited the boat’s passage through the port of Massawa. Heyerdahl is the author of Kon-Tiki (1948), Aku-Aku, The Secret of Easter Island (1958), and Expedition Ra (1970). His film of the Kon-Tiki voyage won an Academy Award in 1951.</text>
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card_18329.xml
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<text>Hillary, Sir Edmund Percival (1919- ), mountain climber and Antarctic explorer, who, with the Nepalese Sherpa Tenzing Norkay, was the first to reach the summit of Mount Everest (8848 m/29,028 ft), the world’s highest peak. Born in Auckland, New Zealand, he served in the Royal New Zealand Air Force during World War II. He obtained his early mountaineering experience in the Southern Alps of New Zealand. In 1951 and 1952 he participated in expeditions to the Himalaya. He joined the British Mount Everest Expedition in 1953 as one of the chief climbers. Hillary reached the summit on May 29, 1953, and was knighted for the achievement later that year. In 1955 he was appointed leader of the New Zealand party of the British Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, which was headed by Vivian E. Fuchs. He crossed the continent by tractor, reaching the South Pole on Jan. 4, 1958, the first person to do so by overland journey since Robert F. Scott in 1912. He subsequently led several expeditions to the Himalaya. Among his writings is the autobiography Nothing Venture, Nothing Win (1975).</text>
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card_18605.xml
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<text>Hudson, Henry (d. 1611?), English navigator, famous for four great voyages of discovery. Nothing is known of his life before 1607, the year in which he undertook his first expedition for the English Muscovy Co. Commanding a single ship, the Hopewell, Hudson touched the shores of Greenland and the Svalbard islands, and sailed as far north as 80°23’ in an attempt to find a northeast passage by way of the Arctic Ocean to the Far East. During the following year he sailed in the same ship under the auspices of the same company, and again attempted unsuccessfully to find a passage, this time by way of the islands of Novaya Zemlya in the Barents Sea. Upon his return, the Muscovy Co. withdrew their support, and Hudson turned to the Dutch East India Co. for new funds and a ship to carry on his work. In that company’s employ he sailed from the Dutch island of Texel, on his third voyage in 1609, in the Half Moon, a vessel of about 73 metric tons, with a mixed Dutch and English crew of 18 or 20 men. He again began his exploration off Novaya Zemlya, intending to try a passage through the ice, but his crew, having endured extremely cold and harsh weather, mutinied, and Hudson headed west and south past Nova Scotia and down the North American coast, in the belief that the Atlantic Ocean was separated from the Pacific Ocean only by a narrow isthmus. In September 1609 he first entered New York Bay, and he spent the following month exploring the Hudson River to a point about 240 km (about 150 mi) from its mouth, at about the present site of the city of Albany. Before the end of the year Hudson and his men returned to England, where they and their ship were seized by the government. Hudson was commanded from that time on to serve only the country of his birth.In 1610 Hudson set out on his final voyage under the patronage of a newly formed company of English gentlemen. In his new ship, the Discovery, he decided from the start to search for a northwest passage; he reached the Hudson Strait by the middle of the year, and passed into Hudson Bay beyond it, where he spent three months exploring the eastern islands and shores. By November his ship was frozen in, and a winter of extreme privation and cold led to dissension among the crew. A part of the crew mutinied in June 1611 and put Hudson, his son, and seven others of the company adrift in a small boat. A few survivors from the mutinous crew reached England, where they were imprisoned, but Hudson and the others were never seen again.</text>
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card_18883.xml
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<text>Johnson, Martin Elmer (1884-1937), and Osa Helen (1894-1953), distinguished American explorers, writers, and motion picture producers who were husband and wife.Martin Johnson was born in Rockford, Ill. Beginning in 1910, he and his wife made many photographic expeditions to the South Pacific and Africa, taking motion pictures of the people and the animal life. Johnson is most famous for a film he made of the vanishing wildlife in Africa for the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. With his wife he wrote many books, including Cannibal Land (1922), Camera Trails in Africa (1924), and Lion—African Adventure with the King of Beasts (1929).Osa Johnson was born in Chanute, Kans. After the death of her husband, she continued to write and produce motion pictures based on her adventures. Among her best-known books are I Married Adventure (1940) and Bride in the Solomons (1944).</text>
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card_19069.xml
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<text>Johnston, Sir Harry H(amilton) (1858-1927), British botanist, explorer, and colonial administrator. He made two botanical expeditions to Africa—to Angola and the Congo River region (1882-83) and to Kilimanjaro (1884)—where he not only collected valuable scientific data but also strengthened British interests in East Africa. Joining the British consular service (1885), he set up the British Central African Protectorate in 1889 and served as the first British commissioner (1891-95) in Nyas aland Protectorate (present-day Malawi) and as consul-general (1899-1901) in Uganda. He wrote more than 40 books on Africa.</text>
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card_19249.xml
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<text>Kane, Elisha Kent (1820-57), American explorer, physician, and scientist, born in Philadelphia, and educated at the universities of Virginia and Pennsylvania. In 1842 he became an assistant surgeon in the U.S. Navy. He served in 1850 with the U.S. Coast Survey as surgeon and naturalist in the first expedition sent to search for the party of the British explorer Sir John Franklin, who had been lost in the Arctic in 1845. In 1853 Kane was appointed head of an Arctic exploration party, in command of the Advance. He sailed through Baffin Bay and Smith Sound in-to the basin now bearing his name, and his expedition remained there for 21 months. The expedition explored as far as 80°35’ N, farther than anyone had previously gone. When provisions ran low, Kane and his group abandoned the Advance and set out for the Danish settlements in Greenland, reaching Upernivik in August 1855 after a hazardous over-land journey of three months. For his book Arctic Explorations: The Second Grinnel Expedition (2 vol., 1856), Kane was awarded medals by the U.S. Congress and the Royal Geographical Society. Other writings include The U.S. Grinnel Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin (1853).</text>
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<text>Kino, Eusebio Francisco (1645-1711), Italian explorer, cartographer, and missionary in southwestern North America, born in Segno. Educated in mathematics and astronomy at Jesuit schools in Italy and Germany, Kino (also spelled Chini, Chino, or Quino) became a member of the Society of Jesus in 1669. In 1681 he arrived in New Spain (now Mexico); in 1682 he published a pamphlet in Mexico City concerning his observations of a comet in Cadiz, Spain, in 1680.Later in 1682, as mapmaker and Jesuit superior of an exploring and colonizing mission to Baja California, Kino began the work that was to occupy him for the rest of his life. In the region known as PimerÌa Alta, comprising what is now the southern part of Arizona and most of the Mexican state of Sonora, Kino spent nearly 30 years preparing maps, founding missions that eventually became towns and cities, and introducing agriculture and stock raising to the Indians. His maps, one of which first showed Baja California to be a peninsula rather than an island, remained stand ard for over a century.</text>
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<text>La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de (1643-87), French explorer in North America, who navigated the length of the Mississippi River and claimed the region Louisiana for France.La Salle was born on Nov. 22, 1643, in Rouen, and educated by the Jesuits. In 1666 he immigrated to Canada; he was granted land on the Saint Lawrence River, and he became a trader. In 1669-70 he explored the region south of Lakes Ontario and Erie, and he later claimed to have discovered the Ohio River in 1671. In the course of his explorations in the wilderness La Salle became familiar with Indian languages and traditions. Because of his capabilities, the French colonial governor, Louis de Buade, comte de Palluau et de Frontenac, appointed him commander of Fort Frontenac, then being built as a trading station. In 1674 he was sent to France as Frontenac’s representative to justify the building of the fort. La Salle’s mission was successful, and he received a patent of nobility.La Salle subsequently conceived a plan for exploring and trading farther west, and in 1677 he again visited France to secure royal approval of his scheme. He returned with the Italian explorer Henri de Tonty, who was to become his associate. In 1679 he set out on a preliminary expedition, and after establishing forts at the mouth of the Saint Joseph River and along the Illinois River, in February 1680, he sent a group to explore the upper Mississippi River. La Salle himself returned to Fort Frontenac to procure new supplies and funds. By spring he was able to travel west again, and he and Tonty proceeded with their party of French and Indians to the Mississippi, which they descended to the Gulf of Mexico in 1682, claiming all the land drained by the river for Louis XIV, king of France, and naming the region Louisiana. La Salle subsequently commenced construction of forts in the new territory; when Frontenac was recalled to France later in 1682, however, La Salle’s rivals succeeded in turning the new governor against him.Journeying to France in 1683, La Salle made a successful appeal to the king, who commended him for his discoveries and named him viceroy of North America. In 1684 he sailed from France with a fleet of four ships on an expedition to establish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. When he reached the Gulf of Mexico he was unable to find the Mississippi River and landed on the shore of the present Matagorda Bay, Texas, believing the bay to be the western outlet of the Mississippi. Several fruitless searches by land for the mouth of the river revealed his mistake. In January 1687 La Salle set out for Canada with a party of 17 men to procure help for the few members left of the original expedition. His men mutinied, however, and he was killed near the Trinity River.</text>
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card_20263.xml
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<text>Lewis And Clark Expedition, exploratory enterprise (1804-6) that mapped the vast new territory west of the Mississippi River acquired by the U.S. in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson, the expedition also cataloged plant and animal life, established relations with Indian inhabitants, and collected information about their culture.The leaders of the expedition were Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, two Virginians who shared a similar military background but were very dissimilar in personality and temperament. Lewis was a solitary, moody, somewhat morose individual, whereas Clark was gregarious, steady, and optimistic. In action, they were a remarkably complementary pair.Planning and recruitment of personnel took place in 1803, but the expedition did not actually set out until May 1804. Its composition ranged from 30 to 45 soldiers and frontiersmen, including one black, and it eventually included one woman. The latter, a Shoshoni Indian named Sacagawea, joined the company in April 1805 and earned her subsequent share of fame as an interpreter and peacemaker.The expedition started at Saint Louis and headed north along the Missouri River. In the summer and fall of 1804 its members proved themselves equal to all challenges—finding food, managing equipment, navigating unknown rivers, surmounting natural obstacles, pushing through wilderness, preserving specimens, making peaceful contact with the native inhabitants, and, above all, maintaining physical and mental health. The first winter was spent among the Mandan Indians of the Dakotas. In the spring of 1805 the expedition again toiled up the Missouri to its headwaters, then across the eastern slopes of the Rockies, over the Continental Divide, and in November 1805 it reached the Pacific.The winter of 1805-6 was spent on the banks of the Columbia River. The return journey presented difficulties of its own—protracted winter weather, occasional conflicts with Indians, growing physical and mental fatigue. Despite everything, the expedition, representative of American culture in its successful blend of self-reliance and collaboration, of hierarchical authority and democratic equality, rose to every occasion. Once having reached the Missouri, they made rapid progress downstream. On Sept. 23, 1806, Lewis and Clark, two years and four months and more than 12,900 km (more than 8000 mi) after starting out, returned to St. Louis.Lewis’s life thereafter was short and troubled; he died under mysterious circumstances three years later. Clark lived to an old age.</text>
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card_20598.xml
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<text>Lewis, Meriwether (1774-1809), American explorer, born in Ivy, Va. He served in the army before 1801 when he became the private secretary to President Thomas Jefferson. In 1803 Jefferson appointed him commander of an expedition to explore the new territory acquired in the Louisiana Purchase. Lewis chose the American explorer William Clark as joint commander; the expedition ended in 1806, and the following year Lewis was made governor of the northern part of the Louisiana Territory. His death near Hohenwald, Tenn., remains a mystery, although modern historians believe he was robbed and murdered.</text>
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card_20739.xml
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<text>Livingstone, David (1813-73), Scottish doctor and missionary, considered one of the most important explorers of Africa.Livingstone was born on March 19, 1813, in Blantyre, Scotland. In 1823 he began to work in a cotton-textile factory. Later, during his medical studies in Glasgow, he also attended classes in theology, and in 1838 he offered his services to the London Missionary Society. At the completion of his medical course in 1840, Livingstone was ordained and was sent as a medical missionary to South Africa. In 1841 he reached Kuruman, a settlement founded in Bechuanaland (now Botswana) by the Scottish missionary Robert Moffat (1795-1883).Livingstone began his work among the black Africans of Bechuanaland, trying to make his way northward, despite active hostility by the Boers, white settlers of mostly Dutch background. He married Mary Moffat (d. 1862), daughter of Robert, in 1845, and, working together, the Livingstones traveled into regions where no European had ever been. In 1849 he crossed the Kalahari Desert and discovered Lake Ngami. In 1851, accompanied by his wife and children, he discovered the Zambezi River. On another expedition (1852-56), while looking for a route to the interior from the east or west coast, he traveled north from Cape Town to the Zambezi, and then west to Luanda on the Atlantic coast. Then, retracing his journey to the Zambezi, Livingstone followed the river to its mouth in the Indian Ocean, thereby discovering (1855) the great Victoria Falls of the Zambezi.First Knowledge of the African Interior. Livingstone’s explorations resulted in a revision of all contemporary maps. He was welcomed as a great explorer in Great Britain upon his return in 1856, and his book Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (1857) made him famous. He resigned from the missionary society, and in 1858 the British government appointed him British consul at Quelimane (now in Mozambique) for the east coast of Africa and commander of an expedition to explore east and central Africa. After his return to Africa in 1858, he led an expedition up the Shire River, a tributary of the Zambezi, and discovered Lake Nyas a. In 1859 he also explored the Rovuma River and discovered Lake Chilwa. During his exploration of the country around Lake Nyas a, Livingstone became greatly concerned over the depredations on the indigenous Africans by Arab and Portuguese slave traders. In 1865, on a visit to England, he wrote Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambezi and Its Tributaries, including a condemnation of slave traders and an exposition of the commercial possibilities of the region (now mostly part of Malawi and Mozambique). In 1866, financed mostly by the liberal contributions of his friends and admirers, Livingstone led an expedition to discover the sources of the Nile and explore the watershed of central Africa. Traveling along the Rovuma River, the explorer made his way toward Lake Tanganyika, reaching its shore in 1869, after having discovered Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu.During this period, little was heard from him, and his welfare became a matter of international concern. In 1870 he began a journey from Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika, into the region lying west of the lake, becoming the first Europeanto visit the Lualaba River, in present-day Zaire. After great privations he returned to Ujiji and was met by a rescue party led by Henry Morton Stanley, an Anglo-American journalist, who is said to have greeted the explorer with the famous remark, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” Stanley and Livingstone explored the country north of Lake Tanganyika together. Later, Livingstone set out alone to continue his search for the source of the Nile. He died in Chitambo (in modern Zambia) probably on April 30, 1873; he was found dead on May 1. His followers buried his heart at the foot of the tree beneath which he died and carried his body to Zanzibar on the east coast. In April 1874 his remains were buried in Westminster Abbey. He is considered one of the greatest modern African explorers and one of the pioneers in the abolition of the slave trade.</text>
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card_21043.xml
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<text>Mackenzie, Sir Alexander (1764?-1820), Canadian explorer and fur trader, born in Stornoway, Lewis with Harris island, Scotland. He immigrated (1774) with his family to New York City and in 1779 moved to Montreal, where he joined the fur-trading firm later known as the North West Co. In 1789 he set out from Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca for his first journey of exploration in northwest Canada. He explored from Great Slave Lake to the Arctic Ocean by traveling on the great river that now bears his name. Four years later, on a second expedition, he ascended the Peace River, crossed the Rocky Mountains, followed the Fraser River and several tributaries, and then struck overland to the Pacific Ocean. Mackenzie was the first man to explore the North American continent north of Mexico on an overland journey. He published his journals of the expeditions in 1801. He was knighted a year later.</text>
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card_21494.xml
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<text>MacMillan, Donald Baxter (1874-1970), American explorer, born in Provincetown, Mass., and educated at Bowdoin College and Harvard University. He first explored (1908-9) the Arctic in the North Polar Expedition, led by the American explorer Robert Edwin Peary. MacMillan made 27 trips to the polar regions during the next 45 years. He led expeditions in Greenland, Labrador, and Baffin, Ellesmere, and Axel Heiberg islands, and he preserved rare samples of arctic vegetation and mineral deposits. In 1925 he directed a polar expedition in Greenland with the aid of U.S. Navy commander Richard Evelyn Byrd. For his explorations and scientific researches, MacMillan received many awards, including the special congressional medal (1944) and the Hubbard Gold Medal (1953) of the National Geographic Society. His writings include Four Years in the White North (1918), Etah and Beyond (1927), and How Peary Reached the Pole (1932).</text>
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card_21598.xml
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<text>Magellan, Ferdinand, in Portuguese, Fernao de Magalhaes, in Spanish, Fernando de Magallanes (1480?-1521), Portuguese navigator and explorer, the first European to cross the Pacific Ocean and the first person to circumnavigate the globe.Magellan was born in Sabrosa of a noble Portuguese family, and he spent his early years as a court page. In 1506 he went to the East Indies, participating in several military and exploratory expeditions in Malacca (now Melaka) and the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, and by 1510 he had been promoted to the rank of captain. He returned to Portugal in 1512 and in 1513 was stationed in Morocco, where he received wounds that left him lame for life. After his request for an increase in his royal allowance was rejected by Emanuel, king of Portugal, who was indifferent also to Magellan’s scheme to seek a westward route to the Moluccas, Magellan renounced his Portuguese nationality and in 1517 offered his services to the king of Spain, Charles I (later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). Magellan subsequently secured the approval of Charles for an expedition that would attempt to reach the Moluccas by sailing west. The success of the voyage would bring great wealth to Spain, since the eastward route to the islands was controlled by Portugal. On Sept. 20, 1519, Magellan sailed from Sanl˙car de Barrameda with five ships and in November of that year reached South America. In February 1520 he explored the RÌo de la Plata estuary, and on March 31, 1520, his fleet put into Port San Julian, where it remained for nearly six months. During that period one ship was wrecked and a mutiny occurred. After the mutiny had been quelled, Magellan sailed into the passage to the Pacific Ocean that is now named for him, the Strait of Magellan, losing another ship, by desertion, en route. After 38 days and a journey of 530 km (330 mi), on Nov. 28, 1520, his three ships sailed into the ocean, which Magellan named “Pacific” because of its calmness. He reached the Marianas, or Ladrone, Islands on March 6, 1521, and ten days later discovered the Philippines, landing on the island of Cebu on April 7. There he made an alliance with the ruler of the island and agreed to aid him in an attack on the natives of the neighboring island of Mactan. Magellan was killed on April 27 during the Mactan expedition.Following Magellan’s death, one of the vessels in his fleet was burned, but the other two escaped and reached the Moluccas on Nov. 6, 1521. One of the vessels, the Victoria, commanded by the Spanish navigator Juan Sebastian del Cano, completed the circumnavigation of the globe, arriving in Seville on Sept. 6, 1522 by way of the Cape of Good Hope route. Although Magellan did not live to complete the voyage, he did circumnavigate the globe by passing the easternmost point he had reached on an earlier voyage.The cargo of spices carried back to Spain by the Victoria alone paid for the expenses of the expedition. The passage through the Strait of Magellan was too long and difficult to be a practical route from Europe to the Moluccas, however, and Spain sold her interests there to Portugal. Nevertheless, the voyage laid the foundation for trade in the Pacific between the New World and the East, and although Spain did not immediately recognize the importance of the Philippines, before the end of the century, Manila had become the greatest Spanish trading center in the East.</text>
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card_21770.xml
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<text>Mawson, Sir Douglas (1882-1958), Australian explorer and geologist, born in Bradford, England, and educated at the University of Sydney. He was a member of the 1907 expedition of the British explorer Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton, which came within 161 km (100 mi) of the South Pole. Mawson organized and commanded (1911-14) an Australasian expedition to explore Antarctic lands south of Australia; two of his companions perished during this arduous journey. On his return Mawson was knighted. Mawson was the leader of the British, Australian, and New Zealand Antarctic Expedition from 1929 to 1931.</text>
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card_22074.xml
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<text>McLoughlin, John (1784-1857), Canadian-American explorer and fur trader, born in Riviere-du-Loup, Que. He became a physician and joined the North West Fur Co., which later merged with the Hudson’s Bay Co. In 1824 he was made the director of the Hudson’s Bay Co. He established his headquarters at Fort Vancouver (now Vancouver, Wash.); organized new trading posts and kept peace among the Indians; and won control of the fur trade on the Pacific coast. Recognizing the agricultural possibilities of Oregon, he encouraged settlement of the region by French-Canadian farmers. He resigned from the Hudson’s Bay Co. in 1846, moved to Oregon City, and became an American citizen.</text>
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card_22386.xml
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<text>Monts, Pierre du Guast, Sieur de (1560?-1630?), French explorer and colonizer in North America. A Huguenot who had served under Henry IV of France, de Monts was granted a trade monopoly in New France (part of present-day Canada) in 1603. Following an expedition to the Saint Lawrence R. with the French explorer Samuel de Champlain, de Monts explored the east coast of North America in 1604 and 1605. He and Champlain established a colony on an island at the mouth of the Saint Croix R., between present-day Maine and New Brunswick; they subsequently relocated the colony to Port Royal (present-day Annapolis Royal) in Nova Scotia.</text>
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card_22597.xml
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<text>Muir, John (1838-1914), American explorer and naturalist, born in Dunbar, Scotland. He was a member of the United States Geodetic Survey in the Great Basin (1876-79) and while in Alaska sighted the glacier that now bears his name. An authority on forestry and forest management, he visited Russia, Siberia, India, Australasia, and the Philippines to study their forests.In recognition of Muir’s efforts as a conservationist and crusader for national parks, Muir Woods National Monument, near San Francisco, was established in 1908. The homes of Muir and his daughter, in Martinez, Calif., were together designated the John Muir National Historic Site in 1964. Muir wrote The Mountains of California (1894) and Our National Parks (1901).</text>
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card_22868.xml
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<text>Nansen, Fridtjof (1861-1930), Norwegian explorer, scientist, statesman, author, and Nobel laureate.Nansen was born in Store FroÎn. He explored Greenland in 1882 and again in 1888, recording his experiences in The First Crossing of Greenland (1890) and Eskimo Life (1891). From 1893 to 1896 Nansen engaged in exploration of the Arctic regions, attaining 86°14’ N, the most northerly point reached up to that time. The ship he used during this expedition, called the Fram, was specially constructed to withstand the great pressure of ice. He described this journey in Farthest North (1897) and The Norwegian North Polar Expedition (6 vol., 1900-6).In 1905 Nansen took part in the movement that led to the peaceful separation of Norway and Sweden and served (1906-8) as the first Norwegian minister to Great Britain. From 1910 to 1914 he engaged in various explorations in the North Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and Siberia. In 1917 he headed a commission to the U.S. to arrange various commercial agreements and in 1918 was a delegate to the Assembly of the League of Nations. He arranged for the repatriation of war prisoners in 1920, and from 1921 to 1923 he had general charge of the Red Cross famine relief in the Volga and South Ukraine regions of the USSR. For this latter work he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922. In 1927 he represented Norway on the disarmament committee of the League of Nations. The league honored him by creating (1931) the Nansen International Office for Refugees, which won the 1938 Nobel Peace Prize.Nansen wrote, in addition to works already mentioned, The Oceanography of the North Polar Basin (1902), Through Siberia, the Land of the Future (1914), Spitzenbergen (1922), and Armenia and the Near East (1928).</text>
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card_23072.xml
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<text>Ogden, Peter Skene (1794-1854), Canadian fur trader and explorer, who lived in the western U.S., including the coastal region of Oregon, northern California, and the Snake River area. As a fur trader for the Hudson’s Bay Co., he was led to new territory in dealing with the Indians west of the Rockies. Ogden made the first approach to the Sierra Nevadas from the east, visiting Carson and Owens lakes in 1829. In 1847 Ogden rescued the survivors of the Marcus Whitman massacre, in which the members of the missionary’s family and 12 members of his group were slain by Cayuse Indians. Ogden, Utah, is named in his honor.</text>
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card_23525.xml
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<text>Orellana, Francisco de (1500?-45), Spanish explorer and soldier, born in Trujillo. He went to Peru in 1535. In 1540 he accompanied the Spanish explorer Gonzalo Pizarro (1506?-48) as second-in-command on an expedition across the Andes Mountains into the country to the east, which was reported to abound in gold, silver, and cinnamon.After a number of misfortunes the expedition reached the Napo River. When the supplies were exhausted, Orellana was ordered (1541) to sail down the Napo River with 50 men to search for provisions and signs of treasure. He descended the stream to its junction with the Amazon River, in present-day north-eastern Peru; instead of returning, he proceeded down the river to the Atlantic Ocean. The voyage to the mouth of the Amazon lasted nearly eight months. From the mouth of the river he sailed back to Spain. His description of a marvelous race of female warriors, whom he named after the Amazons of Greek mythology, gave the river its name. Orellana was granted permission by the Spanish government to return and to continue his exploits. In 1544 he set forth in a second expedition. He died in the new territory within a year.</text>
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card_23560.xml
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<text>Park, Mungo (1771-1806), British explorer, born in Foulshiels, Selkirk, Scotland. In 1795 he went to Africa to explore the Niger River. Upon arriving in present-day Gambia, he went 322 km (200 mi) up the Gambia to the trading station of Pisania (now Karantaba) and then traveled east into unexplored territory. He was captured by a local chief but escaped and in 1796 reached the Niger River at the town of Segou. He traveled 129 km (80 mi) downstream as far as Silla before his supplies were exhausted. After his return to Great Britain in 1797, Park published an account of his trip in Travels in the Interior of Africa (1799). In 1805 he returned to Africa to explore the Niger, from Segou to the mouth of the river, by canoe. His expedition was attacked at Bussa, however, and Park was drowned. An account of Park’s second journey, taken from his journals, was published posthumously in London in 1815.</text>
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card_23809.xml
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<text>Parry, Sir William Edward (1790-1855), British explorer in the Arctic, who made unsuccessful attempts to find the Northwest Passage (q.v.) and to reach the North Pole. In 1819-20 Parry sailed beyond long 11° W, the first person to do so in the Arctic, and discovered and mapped considerable territory, including Barrow Strait, Prince Regent Inlet, Melville Sound, and Wellington Channel. In 1821-23 Parry spent two winters on Melville Peninsula making scientific observations and studying the Inuit (Eskimo). After one more unsuccessful search for the Northwest Passage in 1824-25, he set out in 1827 from Spitsbergen by sledge boat for the North Pole. Before turning back, his party reached lat 82°45’ N, a proximity to the North Pole not attained again until 1876.</text>
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card_24420.xml
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<text>Peary, Robert Edwin (1856-1920), American explorer, born in Cresson, Pa., and educated at Bowdoin College. In 1881 he became a civil engineer in the U.S. Navy; in this capacity he participated in the Nicaragua Canal Survey in 1884-85 and made an exploration into Greenland in 1886. He led further expeditions to Greenland in 1891-92 and from 1893 to 1895. He proved Greenland was an island rather than a continent and that the Greenland ice cap extended no farther north than lat 82° N; he also contributed to scientific knowledge of Inuit (Eskimo) ethnology and of glacial formation. Between 1898 and 1902 Peary engaged in surveys in Greenland. In 1902 and in 1905-06 he made unsuccessful attempts to reach the North Pole, coming within 280 km (174 mi) of his goal on the latter trip.On July 17, 1908, Peary led another expedition to the Pole, and on April 7, 1909, he and a small party consisting of his assistant Matthew A. Henson (1867-1955) and four Inuit reached their target. On Sept. 6, 1909, the day he announced his achievement, Peary learned that the discovery of the Pole had been claimed five days previously by the American explorer and surgeon Frederick Albert Cook. Examination by experts established that the doctor’s claim was false; Peary’s records were accepted as genuine. In 1911, the year Peary retired, Congress recognized his discovery as unimpeachable, and he was given the rank of rear admiral before his retirement. His books include The North Pole (1910) and Secrets of Polar Travel (1917).</text>
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<text>Pizarro, Francisco (1476?-1541), Spanish explorer and conqueror of Peru, noted for his audacity, courage, cruelty, and unscrupulousness and for his abilities as a military and civil leader.Pizarro was born in Trujillo. He came to America in 1510 and took part in a number of explor atory expeditions, including that of Vasco de Balboa, which resulted in Spain’s claim to the Pacific Ocean in 1513. In 1519 Pizarro settled in Panama. Five years later he became a partner of the Spanish soldier and explorer Diego de Almagro and others in a project to explore and conquer territory to the south of Panama. In two expeditions (1524-25, 1526-28), Pizarro explored the west coast of South America and learned of the existence of the Inca Empire of Peru. In 1526 the partners contracted to cooperate in the conquest of Peru, and in 1528 Pizarro went to Spain to enlist royal aid for the venture. The following year Charles I, king of Spain, better known as Charles V, Holy Roman emperor, granted Pizarro the authority to conquer and rule Peru. Pizarro raised a military force in Spain and in 1530 sailed to Panama, where he enlisted additional recruits. In 1531, with about 180 men, Pizarro sailed for Peru, landing there in 1532. He conquered the Inca Empire, executed Emperor Atahualpa, and in 1535 founded the city of Lima as the capital of Peru in place of the native capital Cuzco.After his conquest of Peru, conflicts over territorial jurisdiction developed, and in 1537 civil war broke out between Pizarro and Almagro. Pizarro’s followers defeated those of Almagro in 1538, and Almagro was put to death. In 1541 a group still loyal to Almagro assassinated Pizarro.</text>
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card_24867.xml
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<text>Radisson, Pierre Esprit (c. 1636-c. 1710), French fur trader and explorer, whose trading expeditions led to the organization of the Hudson’s Bay Co. in 1670. Radisson settled in Canada in 1651; the following year he was captured and held by the Iroquois until 1653. He and his brother-in-law, Medard Chouart, sieur des Groseilliers (1618?-96?), were the first Europeans known to have explored the area of Minnesota. Discontent with the French government over the high taxation on furs led them to ally themselves with the English at Port Royal; together they embarked (1668) on a search for an inland Northwest Passage. After retiring from the Hudson’s Bay Company, Radisson eventually settled in England in 1687. His journals were first published in 1885 as the Voyages of Peter Esprit Radisson.</text>
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card_25300.xml
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<text>Rae, John (1813-93), Scottish explorer and surveyor in the Arctic. He studied medicine at Edinburgh, then served (1833-45) as the Hudson’s Bay Company’s surgeon at Moose Factory, northern Canada. From 1847 to 1854, on three expeditions to find the Arctic explorer Sir John Franklin, Rae surveyed about 2255 km (about 1400 mi) of unchartered coastline and proved King William’s Land to be an island. On his fin al journey (1853-54), Rae found out that Franklin had died in the Arctic.</text>
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card_25380.xml
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<text>Rasmussen, Knud Johan Victor (1879-1933), Danish explorer, ethnologist, and writer, born in Jacobsharn, Greenland, of Inuit (Eskimo) descent, and educated at the University of Copenhagen. He spent 30 years exploring the Arctic regions and making ethnological studies of the Inuit. In 1910 he established the Thule station at Cape York, Greenland, to serve as a base for expeditions. When he traveled over the ice sheet of Viscount Melville Sound in 1912, he became the first man to cross the Northwest Passage by dog-sled. Rasmussen maintained that the Inuit derived from the same stock as the North American Indian, origin ally migrating from Asia. His writings include Greenland by the Polar Sea (1919; trans. 1921) and Across Arctic America (1927; trans. 1927).</text>
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card_25705.xml
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<text>Ross, name of two British explorers who were uncle and nephew.Sir John Ross. (1777-1856), explorer of the Arctic, born in Inch, Wigtown Co., Scotland. He entered the Royal Navy at the age of nine and served in the Napoleonic Wars. In 1818 and again in 1829, Ross led Arctic expeditions in search of the Northwest Passage. During the latter voyage his nephew, James Clark Ross, discovered the position of the magnetic North Pole in 1831. The expedition was also notable for the discovery of Boothia Peninsula, King William Island, and the Gulf of Boothia. In 1850 Sir John Ross made a third Arctic expedition to search for the missing British explorer Sir John Franklin. Ross’s writings include Narrative of a Second Voyage in Search of a North-West Passage (1835).Sir James Clark Ross. (1800-62), polar explorer, born in London. He entered the British navy at the age of 12 and in 1818 took part in an Arctic voyage led by his uncle Capt. John Ross in search of the Northwest Passage. Between 1819 and 1827 Ross participated in four Arctic expeditions led by the British explorer Sir William Edward Parry. Ross was again with his uncle on a voyage from 1829 to 1833, and in 1831 he discovered the position of the magnetic North Pole, then in Boothia Peninsula (now in Prince of Wales Island). He then worked (1835-38) on a magnetic survey of Great Britain, and in 1839 the British government placed him in command of an Antarctic expedition. On this voyage, which lasted until 1843, Ross made a number of important geographical discoveries, sighting Victoria Land, Ross Sea, and Ross Island. In 1848 he made an Arctic voyage to search for the British explorer Sir John Franklin, who had failed to return from an expedition undertaken in 1845. Ross was the author of A Voyage of Discovery and Research to Southern and Antarctic Regions (1847).</text>
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<text>Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe (1793-1864), American explorer and ethnologist, born in Watervliet, N.Y., and educated at Middlebury College in Vermont and at Union College (now Union College and University in Schenectady, N.Y.). In 1817-18 he explored Missouri and Arkansas, gathering geological, geographical, and mineralogical information. He served as geologist on the expedition led by the American general Lewis Cass in 1820 that explored the Lake Superior region. From 1822 to 1836 Schoolcraft served as Indian agent for the tribes of that region and from 1836 to 1841 as superintendent of Indian affairs for Michigan. In 1832 he led the expedition that discovered the sources of the Mississippi River. Schoolcraft devoted much of his life to the study of the American Indians and was one of the first to write about their culture. His most important work is the monumental study Historical and Statistical Information Respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States (6 vol., 1851-57).</text>
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<text>Schouten, Willem Cornelis (1567?-1625), Dutch navigator, born in Hoorn. He organized (1615) a company that sought a new route from Europe to the East Indies to evade the Dutch East India Co. monopoly on the usual course around the Cape of Good Hope, Africa. In 1616 Schouten was the first to sail around the southern tip of South America, and he named it Cape Horn, in honor of his birthplace. After rounding the cape he crossed the Pacific Ocean, finally reaching Batavia (now Jakarta), on the island of Java, in present-day Indonesia.</text>
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card_26617.xml
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<text>Scott, Robert Falcon (1868-1912), Brit ish naval officer and explorer of Antarctica, born in Devonport, England. Scott entered the Royal Navy at the age of 14. In 1900 he was placed in command of the National Antarctic Expedition. Leaving England in 1901, Scott established a land base on the shores of McMurdo Sound, in Antarctica. He explored to the east of the Ross Ice Shelf and named Edward VII Peninsula. He also led a party that achieved a record latitude of 81° 17’ S and sledged over Victoria Land. The expedition, which returned in 1904, was responsible for scientific discoveries of marked importance.In 1910 Scott embarked on a second Antarctic expedition, with the aim of being the first man to reach the South Pole. He again landed at McMurdo Sound and with four companions began a trek Of 2964 km (1842 mi), the longest continuous sledge journey ever made in the polar regions. Scott reached the South Pole on Jan. 18, 1912, only to find the tent and flag of the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen, who had achieved the goal 5 weeks earlier. The return journey ended in the loss of the entire party. Petty Officer Edgar Evans (d. 1912) died from a fall; Captain Lawrence Oates (1880-1912) sacrificed his life, hoping thus to save his comrades; Henry R. Bowers (1883-1912), Dr. Edward Wilson (1872-1912), and Scott perished of starvation and exposure on March 29, 1912, within 18 km (11 mi) of their base camp. Their bodies, along with valuable documents and specimens left by Scott in his tent, were found by a search party 2 weeks later. His diaries and other documents were published as Scott’s Last Expedition (1913). He is also the author of The Voyage of the Discovery (1905).</text>
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<text>Selkirk, Alexander (1676-1721), Scottish sailor, born in Largo in the Fife region. He first went to sea in 1695. In 1703 he became sailing master on the ship Cinque Ports, one of the two vessels of a privateering expedition under the English navigator William Dampier. While the expedition was near the Juan Fernandez Islands, off the coast of Chile, Selkirk had a dispute with the captain of his ship. At his own request, he was put ashore in Octo ber 1704 on one of the islands. He lived alone there until rescued in February 1709 by the commander of an English privateer, the Duke. Selkirk subsequently continued his career as a sailor, and at the time of his death he was master’s mate on the English man-of-war Weymouth. The story of his solitary sojourn on Mas a Tierra Island (now Isla Robinson Crusoe) was related in a number of versions by early 18th-century writers such as the Brit ishessayist Sir Richard Steele. It also suggested to the English novelist Daniel Defoe the plot of his novel Robinson Crusoe (1719).</text>
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<text>Shackleton, Sir Ernest Henry (1874-1922), Brit ish explorer, born in Kilkee, county Clare, Ireland. He joined (1890) the Brit ish merchant navy and in 1901 sailed on his first expedition to Antarctica, with the Brit ish explorer Robert Falcon Scott. In 1907 Shackleton commanded the first announced attempt to reach the South Pole. He came within a record-breaking 156 km (97 mi) of his goal on Jan. 9, 1909, reaching lat 88°23’ S. His party also succeeded in climbing the 4023-m (13,200-ft) Mount Erebus. Upon his return that year Shackleton was knighted. From 1914 to 1916 he attempted to reach the Ross Sea, an arm of the South Pacific Ocean, from the Weddell Sea, an almost opposite arm in the South Atlantic Ocean, by crossing the Antarctic Continent; the expedition was unsuccessful. In 1921 Shackleton undertook his final voyage, a 48,280-km (30,000-mi) journey in the South Atlantic Ocean, but he died before the expedition could be completed. His writings include Heart of the Antarctic (1909) and South (1919).</text>
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<text>Smith, Jedediah Strong (1798-1831), American fur trapper and explorer, born in Bainbridge, N.Y. He became a fur trapper in the West as a young man and in the last six years of his life earned a place as one of the greatest pathfinders in American history. In 1826 he ventured southwest with a party of 17 from Great Salt Lake in search of trade routes (for fur-trapping rights) to California and the Northwest. After crossing the Mojave Desert, he reached Mission San Gabriel, Calif., near present-day San Diego, probably the first white to reach California from the East. Sent away by the Spanish governor, who was suspicious of Smith, he proceeded north, becoming the first American to cross the Sierra Nevada Mountains; proceeding northeast across present-day Nevada, he became the first white to cross the Great Salt Lake Desert. Upon returning (1827) to California, ten of his men were killed by Indians; in 1828 Indians killed most of his party on an expedition to Fort Vancouver (now Vancouver, Wash.). Smith was later killed by Comanche Indians on the Santa Fe Trail.</text>
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<text>Speke, John Hanning (1827-64), British explorer, born in Bideford, England. In 1854 he joined an expedition to explore Somaliland, led by the British explorer Sir Richard Burton. The Royal Geographical Society sponsored (1856) an expedition by Speke and Burton to search for the great equatorial lakes that were believed to exist in East Africa. The following year the two men found Lake Tanganyika; then Speke, traveling alone, discovered Lake Victoria, which he believed was the source of the Nile River. On a later expedition, he discovered (1862) falls at the point where the Nile flows out of the lake and named them Ripon Falls. Speke wrote Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (1863) and What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (1864).</text>
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<text>Stanley, Sir Henry Morton (1841-1904), Anglo-American journalist and explorer; one of the leading figures in the exploration and colonization of Africa.Originally named John Rowlands, Stanley was born on Jan. 28, 1841, at Denbigh, Wales. At the age of 18 he sailed as a cabin boy to New Orleans, La., where he gained employment under an American merchant named Henry Morton Stanley, whose name he adopted. During the American Civil War he served in the Confederate army and in 1862 was captured at the Battle of Shiloh. He transferred to the federal service but was discharged, ostensibly because of ill health. In 1867 he became a special correspondent for the New York Herald, and in that capacity in 1868 he accompanied the British punitive expedition led by the British army officer Robert Cornelis Napier (1810-90) against the Ethiopian king Theodore II (1818-68) and was the first to relay the news of the fall of Magdala, then the capital of Ethiopia. Search for Livingstone. In 1869 the American newspaper publisher James Gordon Bennett of the Herald dispatched Stanley to find the Scottish missionary and explorer David Livingstone from whom little had been heard while he was searching for the source of the Nile. After being delayed by other assignments, Stanley reached the island of Zanzibar off the eastern coast of Africa on Jan. 6, 1871. He crossed over to the mainland and left for the interior on March 21, with about 2000 men. On November 10 he met the ailing Livingstone at Ujiji, a town on Lake Tanganyika, and is said to have greeted him with the famous remark, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” After nursing Livingstone back to health, Stanley and he explored the northern end of Lake Tanganyika. Stanley returned to Europe in 1872, and the following year was sent by the Herald to West Africa to report on the British campaign against the Ashanti of what is now Ghana.Further Explorations. The New York Herald and London Daily Telegraph shared the cost of Stanley’s next expedition, planned to continue the work of Livingstone, who had died in 1873. In November 1874 Stanley left Zanzibar for the interior, accompanied by 359 persons. He visited King Mutesa of Buganda and then circumnavigated Lake Victoria, becoming involved in several skirmishes with the inhabitants of the lakeshore. He then went south, circumnavigated Lake Tanganyika, and headed west to the Lualaba River, a headstream of the Congo River. In a great journey of discovery, Stanley navigated down the Lualaba and Congo rivers as far as Livingstone Falls, which he named. He then continued overland for a short distance to the Atlantic Ocean, which he reached in August 1877. About half of his party had died during the arduous trip.Stanley returned to London in January 1878. The following year, under the sponsorship of Leopold II, king of the Belgians, he returned to the Congo on another expedition, which lasted for five years. During this period he constructed a road from the lower Congo to Stanley Pool (now called Malebo Pool) and laid the foundations for the establishment of the Independent State of the Congo.In January 1887, Stanley was placed at the head of an expedition to assist the German explorer Mehmed Emin Pasha, governor of the Equatorial Province of the Egyptian Sudan, who was surrounded by rebellious Mahdist forces. In 1888 Stanley reached Emin Pasha who refused to return to Egypt. During this expedition, Stanley discovered the Ruwenzori Range, the so-called Mountains of the Moon, and found that the Semliki River linked Lake Albert to Lake Edward. In 1889, Stanley finally succeeded in bringing Emin Pasha back to the coast.Last Years. In 1890 Stanley married Dorothy Tennant, who later edited his autobiography (1909). He had been naturalized a U.S. citizen in 1885, but in 1892 again became a British subject. From 1895 to 1900 he sat in Parliament as the Liberal Unionist member for North Lambeth. Stanley’s last visit to Africa was in 1897, and in 1899 he was knighted. He died in London on May 10, 1904. Among his books are How I Found Livingstone (1872), Through the Dark Continent (2 vol., 1878), and In Darkest Africa (2 vol., 1890).</text>
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<text>Stefansson, Vilhjalmur (1879-1962), American explorer and anthropologist, of Icelandic descent, born in Arnes, Man., Canada, and educated at the University of North Dakota, the State University of Iowa, and Harvard University. He made (1904-5) archaeological research trips to Iceland and lived (1906-7) with the Inuit (Eskimos) of the Mackenzie River delta, in northwest Canada. He undertook (1908-12) an ethnological survey of the central arctic coasts of Canada and Alaska. He then took command of what became the longest polar expedition ever made. Stefansson spent five years (1913-18) north of the Arctic Circle, exploring to the north and west of the Parry Islands in Canada and discovering the islands of Brock, Borden, Meighen, and Lougheed. Stefansson served as consultant on the Arctic at Dartmouth College from 1947 until his death. Stefansson Island, near Victoria Island, was named after him in 1952. He wrote 25 books, including My Life with the Eskimo (1913), Greenland (1942), and Northwest to Fortune (1958). Discovery: The Autobiography of Vilhjalmur Stefansson (1964) was published posthumously.</text>
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<text>Stein, Sir (Mark) Aurel (1862-1943), archaeologist and explorer. Born in Hungary, he became a British citizen in 1904. He served (1888-99) as principal of the Oriental College, Lahore, India (now in Pakistan), and was superintendent (1910-29) of the Indian Archaeological Survey. Stein also led four major expeditions (1900, 1906-8, 1913-16, 1930) to trace ancient caravan routes between China and the West, concentrating on the little known region of Chinese Turkestan, and did extensive research on the movements of Alexander the Great through Asia. Stein died in Kabul, Afghanistan, while preparing for a new expedition.</text>
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<text>Sturt, Charles (1795-1869), British explorer and public official in Australia. After 13 years in the British army, he was appointed military secretary to the New South Wales governor. Between 1828 and 1830, on two trips into the Australian interior, he discovered the Darling, Murray, and Murrumbidgee river systems. Recuperating from these trips, which had left him in ill health, he wrote Two Expeditions in the Interior of Southern Australia, 1821-31, which encouraged the British colonization of South Australia. On another expedition (1844-46) he reached the Simpson Desert, near the center of the continent. Sturt served (1849-51) as colonial secretary in Australia.</text>
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<text>Tasman, Abel Janszoon (1603-59), Dutch navigator, born in Lutjegast, near Groningen. About 1632 he entered the service of the Dutch East India Co. He sailed on several expeditions and was chosen (1642) by Anton Van Diemen (1593-1645), the governor-general of the company, to lead an important voyage of exploration in the southern hemisphere. Tasman was to travel through the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean and investigate the possibility of a sea passage to Chile. He left Batavia (now Jakarta), on the island of Java, and sailed to Mauritius. After exploring southeastward, he turned north, and on Nov. 24, 1642, he visited an island, which he named Van Diemen’s Land, now called Tasmania. Tasman continued east and sighted South Island, now part of New Zealand. He passed through the strait between South Island and North Island, and turning northeast, he sighted Tonga and the Fiji Islands. During the voyage he had circumnavigated Australia without sighting it.On his second voyage (1644) Tasman sailed into Torres Strait, reached the Gulf of Carpentaria, and followed the coast of Australia (which was then called New Holland) to about lat 22° S.</text>
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<text>Thompson, David (1770-1857), Canadian surveyor and explorer, born in London. At the age of 14 he became an apprentice of Hudson’s Bay Co., and from 1797 to 1812 he worked with the North West Co., exploring northwest Canada and keeping detailed notes of his travels. He developed great skill in astronomical and geodetic observation. He crossed the Rocky Mountains in Canada and eventually explored the whole length of the Columbia River before reaching Montreal, where he completed (1812-14) invaluable maps of western Canada. From 1816 to 1826 he was one of the appointed surveyors along the boundary between the U.S. and Canada. Although his contribution to North American geography was of major importance, he received scant recognition during his lifetime and died impoverished and almost blind.</text>
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<text>Thomson, Joseph (1858-95), Scottish explorer, who explored many parts of East Africa previously unseen by Europeans and filled his journals with valuable and detailed geographical information. He came upon (1879) Lake Rukwa (in modern Tanzania) and blazed a trail, unarmed, through the hostile Masai country between Zanzibar and present-day Uganda in 1882. Thomson explored (1885) modern northern Nigeria and joined (1890) Cecil Rhodes’s British South Africa Co., negotiating mining and trade agreements in what is now Zambia.</text>
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<text>Thorfinn Karlsefni (b. about 980), Icelandic trader who led the first known pre-Columbian attempt by Europeans to settle in North America. On a trading trip to Greenland in the first years of the 11th century, he met and married Gudrid, the widowed sister-in-law of Leif Ericson. Soon afterward he led a large group—different sources mention 65-160 people—of colonists to Vinland, which had been previously explored by Leif, with the aim of permanent settlement. The hostility of local Indians, however, drove the settlers out after a stay of three years. During that time Gudrid gave birth to a son, who was named Snorri, the first white child known to have been born in America. Thorfinn subsequently settled at his family estate in northern Iceland. After his death, the date of which is unknown, Gudrid went on a pilgrimage to Rome and then became a nun in Iceland.</text>
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<text>Tonty, Henri de (c. 1650-1704), Italian explorer, born in Gaeta. As a youth he entered the service of France, and in 1678 he went with the French explorer Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle, to Quebec. He accompanied La Salle on his famous voyage down the Mississippi River in 1682 and was in command of Fort Saint Louis, in present-day Illinois, from the time of its erection until 1700, when he joined the Louisiana colony. An able administrator and successful colonist, he won the respect and admiration of the Indians. He was known as Iron Hand because of his artificial hand, a substitute for one he lost in battle while with the French army, and was believed by the Indians to have magical powers.</text>
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<text>Vancouver, George (1757-98), British naval officer and explorer, born in King’s Lynn, England. He joined the navy at the age of 13 and served with the British explorer Capt. James Cook on his second (1772-75) and third (1776-80) voyages. In 1791 Vancouver began an expedition to explore the Pacific coast of North America. He reached his destin ation in 1792 and spent three years surveying the coast; during this period he became the first European to circumnavigate the island now named Vancouver. In 1795 Vancouver returned to England.</text>
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<text>Verrazano, Giovanni da (c. 1480-1527?), Italian navigator, born in Val di Greve, near Florence. Entering the French maritime service, he became famous as a corsair (pirate) in raids on Spanish ships. He was commissioned by Francis I, king of France, to claim new lands for France and to seek a western sea route to China. In 1524 he reached the coast of present-day North Carolina and then explored the Atlantic coast as far north as present-day Nova Scotia. He was the first European to enter what is now New York Bay. While on a second expedition Verrazano was killed by Indians in Brazil. The Verrazano-Narrows Bridge in New York Harbor between Brooklyn and Staten Island is named after him.</text>
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<text>Vespucci, Amerigo (Lat. Americus Vespucius) (1454-1512), Italian navigator, born in Florence. In 1495 he took over the business of a merchant in Seville who had furnished supplies to ships voyaging to the West Indies. He later set out for the New World himself. He left accounts and maps of four voyages, claiming that on the first (1497-98) he reached the North American mainland before any other explorer.Although most scholars discredit many of his claims and seriously doubt whether there was a first voyage, they tend to agree that Vespucci did, on the expedition led (1499-1500) by the Spanish soldier Alonso de Ojeda (1465?-1515), explore a large section of the northern coast of South America and, on a subsequent voyage, may have also explored part of that continent’s eastern coast. The German geographer and cartographer Martin Waldseemuller, who translated Vespucci’s narrative in 1507, suggested that it might be proper to name the new continent America, an adaptation of the explorer’s given name of Amerigo. Applied first to the southern continent, the name gradually came into use as that of the two western continents after it appeared on a planisphere published by Waldseemuller in 1516.</text>
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<text>Walker, William (1824-60), American adventurer, born in Nashville, Tenn., and educated at the University of Nashville. He earned a medical degree in 1843, and, after completing his legal studies, was admitted to the bar in New Orleans, La. He went to California in 1850 and in 1853 led an armed invasion of Baja California, Mexico. He proclaimed himself president of an independent republic comprising Baja California and adjoining Sonora. Out of supplies, he had to surrender to U.S. authorities. He was tried for violating neutrality laws in 1854, but he was acquitted.A Nicaraguan revolutionary faction asked for his assistance, and in 1855 he led them in the capture of Granada. He was inaugurated president of Nicaragua in 1856 and was recognized as such by the U.S. He planned to unite the republics of Central America under his rule, but American industrialist Cornelius Vanderbilt, whose transit company had been appropriated by Walker’s Nicaraguan supporters, financed forces to overthrow Walker in battle in 1857.Despite several attempts to recapture Nicaragua, Walker was unsuccessful. He was captured by the British after land ing in Honduras in 1860 and was executed by Honduran authorities. He wrote The War in Nicaragua (1860).</text>
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<text>Whymper, Edward (1840-1911), British mountain climber, writer, and illustrator, born in London. His interest in climbing began when he was commissioned in 1860 by a British publisher to sketch scenes in the French Alps. In 1861, he scaled Mont Pelvoux (3953 m/12,970 ft) and in 1864 Les ecrins (4103 m/13,462 ft), the second highest and highest peaks in the French Dauphine Alps. In 1865, after six unsuccessful attempts to climb the southwestern face of the Matterhorn in Switzerland, he attempted the climb on the eastern face, which then was considered impossible. He and his party succeeded and were the first ever to complete the ascent of the Matterhorn. In 1880, he became the first climber to reach the summit of Chimborazo (6267 m/20,561 ft), the highest peak in Ecuador of the Cordillera Real range of the Andes.Whymper’s expeditions are recounted in Scrambles Amongst the Alps in the Years 1860-69 (1871, illustrated by himself) and Travels Amongst the Great Andes of the Equator (1892). His findings and observations contributed greatly to Arctic exploration, the study of mountain sickness, and the improvement of the aneroid barometer.</text>
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<text>Wilkins, Sir George Hubert (1888-1958), Australian explorer who pioneered exploration of the polar regions during the 1920s.Born on Oct. 31, 1888, in Mount Bryan, near Adelaide, Wilkins was educated at the Adelaide School of Mines. In 1912-13 he covered the Balkan Wars as a photographic correspondent, and from 1913 to 1917 he served as photographer with an expedition to the Canadian Arctic regions led by the Canadian explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson. Wilkins served in the Australian Flying Corps during World War I. In 1920 he made his first expedition to Antarctica, and in 1921-22 he was the naturalist on the last Antarctica expedition led by the British explorer Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton. Wilkins was the leader of an expedition that made a biological survey of tropical Australia from 1923 to 1925. Returning to the Arctic regions in 1926, he pioneered in aerial exploration of the polar regions.In 1928 Wilkins and a copilot flew from Point Barrow, Alaska, to Spitsbergen, a Norwegian archipelago. The 3380-km (2100-mi) flight over largely unexplored Arctic waters was the first to be made from North America to the European polar regions. Wilkins was knighted in 1928 for this feat. Later that year he made aerial explorations of Antarctica. In 1931 he made an unsuccessful attempt in the submarine Nautilus to explore the area under the North Pole. He was manager of the trans-Antarctica expeditions of the American explorer Lincoln Ellsworth from 1933 to 1939. During and after World War II he served as a consultant on arctic problems to the U.S. Army. He made his last trip, an exploration of Antarctica, in 1957. Wilkins’s writings include Undiscovered Australia (1928), Flying the Arctic (1928), and Under the North Pole (1931). He died in Framingham, Mass., on Dec. 1, 1958.</text>
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